L3: Memory Flashcards
1
Q
Describe Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) Multi-store Model of Memory (MSM)
A
- involves three memory stores: sensory memory, STM & LTM
- Information flows from sensory memory to STM through attention and rehearsal, and from STM to LTM through encoding and consolidation.
2
Q
What was the method used in Sperling’s (1960) study on sensory memory?
A
- Sperling used the partial report procedure, where participants were shown an array of letters and heard a tone that cued them to recall a specific row of letters.
- Result: Participants could briefly recall more items from the cued row, suggesting the existence of iconic memory (visual sensory memory).
3
Q
What is iconic memory?
A
- a type of sensory memory that retains visual information for a very brief duration, typically decaying in less than a second
4
Q
What is echoic memory?
A
- a type of sensory memory that involves auditory information. It retains auditory stimuli for a short period, usually decaying in about 5 seconds
5
Q
What was the method used in Tulving & Thomson’s (1973) study on memory retrieval cues?
A
- Tulving & Thomson examined retrieval cues by having participants learn word pairs and providing cues during recall.
Result: Participants showed improved recall when provided with appropriate retrieval cues, suggesting the importance of context in memory retrieval.
6
Q
What was the method used in Godden & Baddeley’s (1975) study on context-dependent memory?
A
- Godden & Baddeley investigated context-dependent memory by having divers learn and recall words underwater or on land.
- Result: Participants showed better recall when the encoding and retrieval contexts matched, demonstrating the influence of context on memory
7
Q
What was the focus of Brown & Kulik’s (1977) study on flashbulb memory?
A
- Brown & Kulik explored flashbulb memory, which refers to vivid and emotionally charged memories of significant events.
- Result: They found that flashbulb memories were well-preserved over time and associated with strong emotions
8
Q
How did Loftus & Palmer (1974) examine the influence of leading questions on memory recall?
A
- Loftus & Palmer presented participants with videos of car accidents and asked about the car’s speed using different verbs.
- Result: The wording of the question affected participants’ estimates of the car’s speed, demonstrating the reconstructive nature of memory
9
Q
What did Wells et al. (1998) study on eyewitness misidentification reveal?
A
- Wells et al. investigated the unreliability of eyewitness memory in legal contexts.
- Result: The research highlighted the significance of eyewitness misidentification in wrongful convictions
10
Q
What did Nader et al. (2000) discover in their study on memory reconsolidation?
A
- Nader et al. investigated memory reconsolidation in rats by retrieving and updating memories.
- Result: The study showed that memories become temporarily unstable during retrieval and can be updated before reconsolidation
11
Q
What aspect of memory encoding did Craik et al. (1996) examine in their study?
A
- Craik et al. examined memory encoding in older adults, focusing on the level of attention during encoding.
- Result: Older adults’ memory performance was influenced by the level of attention they paid to information during encoding
12
Q
What phenomenon did Glanzer & Cunitz (1966) explore in their memory study?
A
- Glanzer & Cunitz explored the serial position effect by presenting participants with a list of words.
- Result: Participants were more likely to remember words presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of the list.
13
Q
What aspect of memory did Underwood (1957) study in his research?
A
- Underwood’s study on proactive interference had participants learn multiple lists of words.
- Result: Participants’ recall of newly learned information was affected by interference from previously learned information
14
Q
What are the key elements of memory?
A
- Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.
- Atkinson & Shiffrin’s (1968) model of memory, known as the “multi-store model,” proposes that memory involves three main components: sensory memory, STM & LTM
15
Q
How does memory encoding work?
A
- involves the process of converting sensory information into a form that can be stored in memory
- Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model suggests that info from the sensory registers enters short-term memory through attention, where it is processed further
16
Q
What is iconic memory, and how long does it typically last?
A
- Iconic memory is a type of sensory memory that pertains to visual information.
- It retains visual stimuli for a very brief duration, usually decaying in less than a second.
- Sperling (1960) conducted a classic study on iconic memory using a partial report procedure.
17
Q
What is echoic memory, and how long does it typically last?
A
- Echoic memory is a type of sensory memory that involves auditory information.
- It retains auditory stimuli for a short period, usually decaying in about 5 seconds.
18
Q
How is memory retrieval affected by context and cues?
A
- Memory retrieval can be influenced by the context in which the information was encoded and the presence of cues that trigger associations with the stored memory.
- Tulving and Thomson (1973) demonstrated the importance of retrieval cues in accessing specific information from memory
19
Q
What is the role of the central executive in Baddeley’s working memory model?
A
- The central executive is an attentional system that coordinates and controls plans of action and output
20
Q
What is the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in working memory?
A
- The visuospatial sketchpad briefly stores visual and spatial information for further manipulation
21
Q
What does the phonological loop handle in Baddeley’s working memory model?
A
- The phonological loop allows for saying the information back to yourself (articulatory rehearsal) and handles auditory information
22
Q
What is the purpose of the episodic buffer in working memory?
A
- is a temporary storage space where information from long-term memory can be integrated into working memory
23
Q
What is the role of the hippocampus in memory?
A
- s crucial for memory formation and consolidation
- It helps transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
- Studies on patients with hippocampal damage, such as patient H.M. (Scoville & Milner, 1957), have provided significant insights into the role of the hippocampus in memory
24
Q
How does the process of memory storage work?
A
- involves maintaining encoded information over time. According to Atkinson & Shiffrin’s model, information can be transferred from STM to LTM through rehearsal
25
What is sensory memory?
- the brief retention of sensory information in its original sensory form (e.g., visual, auditory) before it is processed further
- sperling (1960) conducted a study on the capacity and duration of sensory memory using the whole report and partial report procedures
26
How does elaborative rehearsal aid memory encoding?
- involves connecting new information to existing knowledge, which enhances memory encoding & promotes better retention.
- Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels of processing theory, which emphasizes the role of deep processing in memory
27
What is the role of retrieval cues in memory?
- stimuli/info that help trigger recall of stored memories during the retrieval process
- Godden and Baddeley (1975) demonstrated context-dependent memory using an underwater and on-land learning and recall task
28
How can context-dependent memory affect recall?
- suggests that information is better recalled when the retrieval context matches the encoding context.
- This was illustrated in Godden and Baddeley's (1975) study on scuba divers' recall in different environments
29
Describe the relationship between emotion and memory
- emotionally charged events tend to be remembered more vividly & can influence memory retrieval and consolidation processes.
- studies like the flashbulb memory research by Brown and Kulik (1977) have shown how emotionally significant events lead to highly detailed and persistent memories
30
Explain the concept of state-dependent memory
- suggests that memory retrieval is enhanced when the individual's internal state during retrieval matches their internal state during encoding
- Goodwin et al. (1969) conducted a study on state-dependent learning using the effects of alcohol on memory
31
What are some factors that contribute to memory reconstruction?
- can be influenced by personal biases, expectations, and the integration of new information into existing memories
- Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a study on how leading questions can distort eyewitness memory
32
How does the misinformation effect impact memory accuracy?
- occurs when misleading information is presented after an event, leading to distortions or inaccuracies in the memory of that event
- Loftus and Loftus (1980) conducted a study on how misleading post-event information can alter eyewitness memory
33
Why is eyewitness memory often considered unreliable in legal contexts?
- it's susceptible to various memory distortions, making it unreliable in legal contexts where accuracy is crucial
- Eyewitness misidentification has been a significant factor in wrongful convictions (Wells et al., 1998)
34
How does the concept of memory reconsolidation explain memory updating?
- suggests that when a memory is retrieved, it becomes temporarily unstable, allowing for potential updates/changes to the memory before being reconsolidated.
- Nader et al. (2000) conducted a study on memory reconsolidation in rats
35
Explain the relationship between attention and memory encoding
- Paying attention to information helps enhance memory encoding by increasing the chances of the information being processed and transferred to long-term memory
- Craik et al. (1996) conducted a study on attention and memory in older adults.
36
How does the serial position effect impact memory retrieval?
- The serial position effect shows that items presented at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list are more likely to be remembered than those in the middle
- Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) conducted a study on the serial position effect
37
Describe the concept of proactive interference in memory
- occurs when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information. Underwood (1957) conducted a study on proactive interference in memory recall
38
What is chunking in the context of memory?
- involves combining small pieces of information into larger clusters or chunks that are more easily held In STM
39
What are schemas in memory?
- mental models of the world that contain knowledge that helps us encode new info into a meaningful context
40
How are memories constructed?
- made by combining info we already have in our brain with new information that comes in
- memory is constructed, not simply recorded
41
What is visual imagery encoding?
- a memory process that involves storing new information by converting it into mental pictures
42
What did Wollen et al. (1972) discover in their study on encoding with interactions?
- found that encoding with interactions results in better memory retention, even if the interactions are unusual
43
What is the method of loci in memory?
- a memory aid that associates info with mental images of locations. It involves taking a mental walk in a familiar place
44
What is the encoding specificity principle?
- states that a retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate the specific way in which information was initially encoded (Tulving & Thomson, 1973)
45
What is state-dependent retrieval in memory?
- refers to the tendency for info to be better recalled when the person is in the same state during encoding and retrieval
46
What did Godden and Baddeley (1975) study in their research on divers' memory?
- investigated context-dependent memory by having divers learn and recall words underwater or on land
-they found that participants showed better recall when the encoding and retrieval contexts matched
47
What is transfer-appropriate processing (TAP) in memory?
- refers to the idea that memory is likely to transfer from one situation to another when we process info in a way that is appropriate to the retrieval cues that will be available later
48
What is explicit memory?
- the act of consciously or intentionally retrieving past experiences
- It includes semantic memory (general knowledge) and episodic memory (personal experiences)
49
What is implicit memory?
- the influence of past experiences on later behavior and performance, even though people are not trying to recollect them and are not aware that they are remembering them
- includes procedural memory (skills) and priming (enhanced ability to think of a stimulus due to recent exposure)
50
What is transience in memory?
- refers to forgetting that occurs with the passage of time
- memory changes from more specific to more general over time.
- the forgotten curve shows that most forgetting happens soon after an event occurs, with increasingly less forgetting over time
51
What is the forgotten curve, and who proposed it?
- proposed by Ebbinghaus (1964)
- shows memory doesn't fade at a constant rate as time passes.
- most forgetting happens soon after an event occurs, with increasingly less forgetting over time
- not just about quantity but also about the quality of memory
52
What is the serial position effect in memory?
- refers to the enhanced memory for events presented at the beginning and end of a learning episode
- the primacy effect is for items remembered better at the beginning, while the recency effect is for items remembered better at the end.
53
What is prospect memory, and how does it differ from retrospective memory?
- prospect memory involves remembering to do things in the future
- retrospective memory is about recalling information learned in the past
- key difference is "when" something needs to be remembered: prospect memory for what to do in the future, and retrospective memory for what has already happened.
54
What are the two types of prospect memory, and what do they require?
- event-based memory, which requires an action when an event occurs
- time-based memory, which requires an action when a certain time or interval is reached
- Both types require attention to monitor the passage of time.
55
What is anterograde amnesia, and what is retrograde amnesia?
- anterograde amnesia is the inability to transfer new info from STM to LTM
- retrograde amnesia is the inability to retrieve information acquired before a specific date (usually due to an injury or operation)
- the hippocampus is an index that links all the separate memory together
56
What is source monitoring, and what is memory misattribution?
- Source monitoring involves recalling when, where, and how information was acquired
- Memory misattribution refers to assigning a recollection or idea to the wrong source.
57
What are the three types of source monitoring?
- internal, which involves thoughts about doing versus actually doing
- external, which involves distinguishing between multiple external sources
- reality, which involves distinguishing between actual events and imagined ones
58
What is the déjà vu experience, and what is déjà vecu?
- Déjà vu is the experience of feeling like you have been in a situation before, even though you can't recall any details
- Déjà vecu is a confabulated memory where the individual is certain that the new experience is old.
59
What are false memories?
recollections of events that never happened
60
What are memory biases, and what are the types of biases?
- the distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings on recollection of previous experiences types of biases:
- include consistency bias (altering the past to fit the present)
- change bias (exaggerating differences between past and present)
- egocentric bias (distorting the past to make us look better)
61
What is suggestibility, and what are intrusion errors?
- Suggestibility is the tendency to incorporate misleading info from external sources into personal recollections
- Intrusion errors refer to falsely recalling details/events that were suggested or implied but did not occur
62
What did Loftus et al. (1978) and Loftus (1993) discover in their studies on suggestibility?
- Loftus et al. found that participants who received suggested questions recalled details that were not in a video, demonstrating the influence of suggestive questioning on memory
- Loftus (1993) showed that vivid and detailed recollections could be generated by suggesting that individuals had once experienced events that did not happen, leading to false memories
63
What are the "Seven Sins of Memory," and who proposed them?
- proposed by Schacter (2001)
- transience
- absent-mindedness
- blocking
- misattribution
- suggestibility
- bias
- persistence.
- they represent different ways in which memory can be distorted or fail
