L2: Instrumental Conditioning Flashcards
What is Instrumental Conditioning also known as?
Operant Conditioning
What are the two main types of associative learning?
Classical Conditioning and Instrumental Conditioning
Describe Classical Conditioning
- an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a reflex response.
- over time, the neutral stimulus alone can trigger the reflex response
How is Instrumental Conditioning different from Classical Conditioning?
- Instrumental Conditioning involves learning how to control the environment to acquire desirable outcomes/avoid undesirable ones.
- the animal’s behavior is instrumental in obtaining what it wants
- unlike Classical Conditioning, which is reflexive, Instrumental Conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors and their consequences
Define Reinforcement in the context of Instrumental Conditioning
- refers to the consequences of behavior that increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated
- a reinforcer is something the animal wants, and it is contingent on the organism’s behavior
How does a reinforcer differ from a reward?
- a consequence that follows a behaviour and increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
- It is contingent on the behaviour.
- whereas, a reward is something given for a worthy accomplishment, but it may not be directly contingent on the specific behaviour
According to Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect, what happens to behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes or unsatisfying outcomes?
- Behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes will be strengthened (stamped in)
- while behaviors that lead to unsatisfying outcomes will be weakened (stamped out)
Describe B.F. Skinner’s contribution to Instrumental Conditioning
- B.F. Skinner developed the concept of Operant Conditioning, which involves learning through the consequences of behaviour
- emphasized that the consequences of behaviour affect the probability of its recurrence in the future
- Skinner’s experiments with pigeons & rats in controlled environments (Skinner box) revealed the importance of punishment & reinforcement in shaping behaviour
What is shaping in the context of Instrumental Conditioning?
- refers to the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior
- involves reinforcing behaviours that are closer & closer to the target behavior until the desired behavior is achieved
What is the purpose of discrimination training in Instrumental Conditioning?
- discrimination training curbs generalization and helps organisms differentiate between stimuli that predict reinforcement and those that don’t
- e.g, a child learning to pet a friendly dog but not an unfamiliar aggressive dog demonstrates discrimination training
What are Conditioned Reinforcers in Instrumental Conditioning?
- secondary reinforcers that gain their reinforcing properties through classical conditioning
- they increase the generalizability of instrumental conditioning and contribute to maintaining behaviors.
What factors decrease the likelihood of behavior in Instrumental Conditioning?
- punishment, which must be immediate, inevitable, and severe
- punishment is not effective in the long run, and it may lead to undesired side effects such as fear and aggression
What are Schedules of Reinforcement in Instrumental Conditioning?
- refer to the patterns in which reinforcers are delivered following a behaviour.
- Examples include Variable Ratio (e.g., slot machines) and Fixed Interval (e.g., snail mail delivery)
What is the Premack Principle, and how was it tested in an experiment by David Premack?
- states that if one activity occurs more frequently than another, it can be used to reinforce the less frequent activity
- David Premack tested this principle in an experiment with first-grade children, using manipulator-eater contingencies
According to the Disequilibrium Hypothesis, what makes a specific activity reinforcing or punishing?
- states that any activity can be a reinforcer if a contingency schedule restricts an animal’s access to that activity
- if the activity is below baseline, it can be used to reinforce another activity
- If the activity exceeds the baseline, it becomes a punisher
What are the biological constraints in Instrumental Conditioning?
- refer to the innate predispositions that limit an organism’s ability to acquire certain behaviours.
- e.g, raccoons dropping coins in a piggy bank (instinctive drift) or humans acquiring certain fears more readily (snakes, heights).
What is Escape and Avoidance Learning in Instrumental Conditioning?
- Escape Learning involves making a response that terminates an aversive event
- while Avoidance Learning prevents the aversive event from occurring in the first place
- After Avoidance Learning, the conditioned response is fear, which helps to avoid the aversive stimulus
What role do cognitive factors play in Instrumental Conditioning?
- occurs only when the organism perceives a contingency between its response and the outcome
- Seligman’s Learned Helplessness experiment demonstrated that animals only learn when they perceive control over reinforcement
What is Observational Learning, and how is it guided?
- involves learning from observing the behaviour of others and the consequences they face (rewarded/punished)
- guided by the principles of instrumental conditioning, where reinforcement is vicarious
What did Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment demonstrate about Observational Learning?
- Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment showed that children observing an adult model behaving aggressively were more likely to imitate aggressive actions
- Observational learning also extends to exposure to aggressive behaviour in media, such as violent television and video games
What are Mirror Neurons, and how do they relate to Observational Learning?
- are active in the motor cortex of monkeys and humans when they observe/execute an action
- they play a role in observational learning by allowing the observed action to be directly mapped into a motor pattern for execution at a later time
What is addiction, and what are its characteristics?
- involves repeated powerful motivation to engage in an activity, such as taking drugs
- It is acquired through repeated engagement in the activity and leads to potential harm to mental and physical health, neglecting personal and professional responsibilities, and overdose
What are the criteria for Substance Use Disorders according to DSM-IV and DSM-V?
- The criteria for Substance Use Disorders include Initiation (experimentation and desire), Regular use (want and habit), and Addiction (need, cessation, relapse)
- Positive mood states and reduction of anxiety are often associated with initiation and regular use
How do tolerance and withdrawal effects contribute to addiction?
- Tolerance and withdrawal effects are signs of addiction
- They occur when the body adapts to the drug’s presence and requires higher doses to achieve the same effects
- Withdrawal symptoms may lead to a cycle of drug use to avoid negative feelings
