L2: Instrumental Conditioning

Question 1

What is Instrumental Conditioning also known as?

Answer 1

Operant Conditioning

Question 2

What are the two main types of associative learning?

Answer 2

Classical Conditioning and Instrumental Conditioning

Question 3

Describe Classical Conditioning

Answer 3

• an organism learns to associate a neutral stimulus (conditioned stimulus) with an unconditioned stimulus that naturally elicits a reflex response.
• over time, the neutral stimulus alone can trigger the reflex response

Question 4

How is Instrumental Conditioning different from Classical Conditioning?

Answer 4

• Instrumental Conditioning involves learning how to control the environment to acquire desirable outcomes/avoid undesirable ones.
• the animal’s behavior is instrumental in obtaining what it wants
• unlike Classical Conditioning, which is reflexive, Instrumental Conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors and their consequences

Question 5

Define Reinforcement in the context of Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 5

• refers to the consequences of behavior that increase the likelihood of that behavior being repeated
• a reinforcer is something the animal wants, and it is contingent on the organism’s behavior

Question 6

How does a reinforcer differ from a reward?

Answer 6

• a consequence that follows a behaviour and increases the likelihood of that behaviour being repeated.
• It is contingent on the behaviour.
• whereas, a reward is something given for a worthy accomplishment, but it may not be directly contingent on the specific behaviour

Question 7

According to Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect, what happens to behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes or unsatisfying outcomes?

Answer 7

• Behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes will be strengthened (stamped in)
• while behaviors that lead to unsatisfying outcomes will be weakened (stamped out)

Question 8

Describe B.F. Skinner’s contribution to Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 8

• B.F. Skinner developed the concept of Operant Conditioning, which involves learning through the consequences of behaviour
• emphasized that the consequences of behaviour affect the probability of its recurrence in the future
• Skinner’s experiments with pigeons & rats in controlled environments (Skinner box) revealed the importance of punishment & reinforcement in shaping behaviour

Question 9

What is shaping in the context of Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 9

• refers to the reinforcement of successive approximations to a final desired behavior
• involves reinforcing behaviours that are closer & closer to the target behavior until the desired behavior is achieved

Question 10

What is the purpose of discrimination training in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 10

• discrimination training curbs generalization and helps organisms differentiate between stimuli that predict reinforcement and those that don’t
• e.g, a child learning to pet a friendly dog but not an unfamiliar aggressive dog demonstrates discrimination training

Question 11

What are Conditioned Reinforcers in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 11

• secondary reinforcers that gain their reinforcing properties through classical conditioning
• they increase the generalizability of instrumental conditioning and contribute to maintaining behaviors.

Question 12

What factors decrease the likelihood of behavior in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 12

• punishment, which must be immediate, inevitable, and severe
• punishment is not effective in the long run, and it may lead to undesired side effects such as fear and aggression

Question 13

What are Schedules of Reinforcement in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 13

• refer to the patterns in which reinforcers are delivered following a behaviour.
• Examples include Variable Ratio (e.g., slot machines) and Fixed Interval (e.g., snail mail delivery)

Question 14

What is the Premack Principle, and how was it tested in an experiment by David Premack?

Answer 14

• states that if one activity occurs more frequently than another, it can be used to reinforce the less frequent activity
• David Premack tested this principle in an experiment with first-grade children, using manipulator-eater contingencies

Question 15

According to the Disequilibrium Hypothesis, what makes a specific activity reinforcing or punishing?

Answer 15

• states that any activity can be a reinforcer if a contingency schedule restricts an animal’s access to that activity
• if the activity is below baseline, it can be used to reinforce another activity
• If the activity exceeds the baseline, it becomes a punisher

Question 16

What are the biological constraints in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 16

• refer to the innate predispositions that limit an organism’s ability to acquire certain behaviours.
• e.g, raccoons dropping coins in a piggy bank (instinctive drift) or humans acquiring certain fears more readily (snakes, heights).

Question 17

What is Escape and Avoidance Learning in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 17

• Escape Learning involves making a response that terminates an aversive event
• while Avoidance Learning prevents the aversive event from occurring in the first place
• After Avoidance Learning, the conditioned response is fear, which helps to avoid the aversive stimulus

Question 18

What role do cognitive factors play in Instrumental Conditioning?

Answer 18

• occurs only when the organism perceives a contingency between its response and the outcome
• Seligman’s Learned Helplessness experiment demonstrated that animals only learn when they perceive control over reinforcement

Question 19

What is Observational Learning, and how is it guided?

Answer 19

• involves learning from observing the behaviour of others and the consequences they face (rewarded/punished)
• guided by the principles of instrumental conditioning, where reinforcement is vicarious

Question 20

What did Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment demonstrate about Observational Learning?

Answer 20

• Bandura’s Bobo Doll experiment showed that children observing an adult model behaving aggressively were more likely to imitate aggressive actions
• Observational learning also extends to exposure to aggressive behaviour in media, such as violent television and video games

Question 21

What are Mirror Neurons, and how do they relate to Observational Learning?

Answer 21

• are active in the motor cortex of monkeys and humans when they observe/execute an action
• they play a role in observational learning by allowing the observed action to be directly mapped into a motor pattern for execution at a later time

Question 22

What is addiction, and what are its characteristics?

Answer 22

• involves repeated powerful motivation to engage in an activity, such as taking drugs
• It is acquired through repeated engagement in the activity and leads to potential harm to mental and physical health, neglecting personal and professional responsibilities, and overdose

Question 23

What are the criteria for Substance Use Disorders according to DSM-IV and DSM-V?

Answer 23

• The criteria for Substance Use Disorders include Initiation (experimentation and desire), Regular use (want and habit), and Addiction (need, cessation, relapse)
• Positive mood states and reduction of anxiety are often associated with initiation and regular use

Question 24

How do tolerance and withdrawal effects contribute to addiction?

Answer 24

• Tolerance and withdrawal effects are signs of addiction
• They occur when the body adapts to the drug’s presence and requires higher doses to achieve the same effects
• Withdrawal symptoms may lead to a cycle of drug use to avoid negative feelings

Question 25

What makes some psychoactive drugs more addictive than others?

Answer 25

• their ability to activate the incentive and pleasure systems in the brain
• the presence of tolerance and withdrawal effects
• and long-lasting changes in brain incentive systems leading to cravings even after withdrawal

Question 26

Can behavioral addictions be as powerful as drug addictions?

Answer 26

• Yes, behavioral addictions can be as powerful as drug addictions
• Engaging in certain activities can become compulsive and all-consuming, leading to harmful consequences even without involving drugs

Question 27

Can behavioral addictions be as powerful as drug addictions?

Answer 27

• Yes, behavioral addictions can be as powerful as drug addictions
• Engaging in certain activities can become compulsive and all-consuming, leading to harmful consequences even without involving drugs