L6: better phrasing for an essay Flashcards
introducing personality
Gordon Allport (1961) defined personality as “a dynamic organization, inside the person, of psychophysical systems that create the person’s characteristic patterns of behavior, thoughts and feelings.” This definition captures the complexity and individuality inherent in human personality, highlighting both the internal psychological and physiological components that contribute to consistent patterns in how people behave, think, and feel. Over time, various psychological perspectives have emerged to explain these patterns, each offering unique insights into the nature of personality. These include the trait approach, biological and physiological theories, cognitive perspectives, psychoanalytic theory, learning theory, and the humanistic approach. The study of personality is essential for understanding the unique psychological makeup of individuals and how it shapes their behavior, thoughts, and emotions. One of the primary goals is to explore the structure of personality, allowing psychologists to identify and describe the ways in which people differ from one another. This knowledge helps answer fundamental questions such as: What makes us unique? In addition, personality research enables the development of reliable and valid measures that can be used in both clinical and research settings to assess individual differences. By understanding personality traits and processes, psychologists can also predict behavior across different situations, contributing to applications in education, employment, health, and interpersonal relationships. Furthermore, studying personality sheds light on its developmental origins, examining how early life experiences, social environments, and biological factors interact to shape individual traits. This understanding supports the creation of interventions aimed at promoting positive behavior change, particularly in clinical and therapeutic contexts. Moreover, research in personality psychology contributes to the ongoing investigation of the relative influence of heredity and environment, as well as the biological underpinnings of personality, helping to bridge the gap between psychology and neuroscience.
lexical hypothesis?
The trait approach is one of the most enduring and empirically grounded perspectives in personality psychology. It is based on the premise that individuals possess consistent and measurable personality characteristics, known as traits, which influence behavior across various situations. A foundational concept in this approach is the lexical hypothesis, first proposed by Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), which suggests that the most significant and socially relevant personality characteristics become encoded in language. According to this view, the more important a trait is to society, the more likely it is to have multiple synonyms and a higher frequency of usage. For example, Galton’s early work—and subsequent research—identified that the English language contains numerous descriptors for traits like honesty (31 words), warmth (13), and pedantic tendencies (9), ultimately identifying 18,000 personality-related words.
This list was refined by Gordon Allport (1897–1967), who narrowed it to approximately 4,500 terms that could be considered stable personality traits. Building on this work, Raymond Cattell (1905–1998) applied factor analysis, a statistical method used to identify clusters of related traits. He distinguished between surface traits (observable behaviors) and source traits (underlying structures), reducing Allport’s list to 171 traits, then to 46 surface traits, and ultimately proposing 16 core personality factors, which he argued formed the basic structure of personality.
Later, Hans Eysenck (1916–1997) further streamlined the model, suggesting that personality could be captured by just three dimensions: extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. His model was notable for its emphasis on biological and genetic influences, and it gained strong empirical support across cultures. For instance, neuroticism was associated with emotional instability, while psychoticism was linked to traits such as impulsivity and risk-taking. Eysenck’s work laid the groundwork for later trait models, including the Five-Factor Model (Big Five), and his robust and widely used personality assessments remain influential today.
the trait approach
A trait is defined as “a dimension of personality used to categorize people according to the degree to which they manifest a particular characteristic” (Burger, 1997, p. 166). The trait approach posits that personality has a basic structure made up of a finite number of variables, and an individual’s uniqueness lies in their particular combination of these variables. Traits are stable across time and situations, influencing behavior.
One prominent model within the trait approach is the Five-Factor Model (or Big Five), which was developed by several scientists. The Big Five traits are: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (OCEAN). These traits are hierarchical, with each having six subordinate traits. The Big Five is measured using tools like the NEO-PI-R (Costa & McCrae, 1985).
Openness reflects curiosity, imagination, and preference for variety (e.g., high openness = curious, independent; low openness = conventional, narrow interests).
Conscientiousness involves organization and goal-oriented behavior (e.g., high = disciplined, reliable; low = impulsive, disorganized).
Extraversion captures sociability and energy levels (e.g., high = outgoing, adventurous; low = quiet, reserved).
Agreeableness measures kindness and cooperativeness (e.g., high = empathetic, trusting; low = critical, uncooperative).
Neuroticism represents emotional stability and tendency to experience negative emotions (e.g., high = anxious, insecure; low = calm, emotionally stable).
These traits exist on a spectrum, and each person scores differently across them, with specific subordinate traits linking to the broader categories. This model allows for quantitative data on personality, highlighting how different levels of each trait influence behavior and interpersonal interactions.
big 5 markers?
The Big Five personality traits are measured through specific markers—statements or items designed to assess each personality dimension. The NEO-PI-R (Neuroticism-Extraversion-Openness Personality Inventory - Revised) is one of the most widely used tools to evaluate these traits, with each item corresponding to a particular dimension. Here are examples of markers for each trait and what they measure:
Extraversion: “I am the life of the party.” A high score on this item indicates a high score on Extraversion (outgoing, sociable).
Neuroticism: “I get stressed out easily.” A high score here indicates a high level of Neuroticism (emotional instability, anxiety).
Openness: “I have a rich vocabulary.” High scorers on this item tend to score high on Openness (curiosity, intellectual engagement).
Conscientiousness: “I am always prepared.” A high score on this item indicates high Conscientiousness (organization, reliability).
Agreeableness: “I am interested in people.” A high score here shows high Agreeableness (empathy, cooperativeness).
Each trait in the Big Five has subordinate traits, allowing for a more nuanced view of personality. For example, Neuroticism includes facets such as anxiety, depression, vulnerability, and impulsiveness. Similarly, Extraversion is further broken down into warmth, assertiveness, and activity level.
These traits form a spectrum, meaning people can score anywhere along the continuum, from high to low. The markers are designed to capture these varying levels and provide reliable, stable results across assessments. In the NEO-PI-R, the consistency of your answers across similar items (such as multiple questions measuring aspects of Neuroticism or Extraversion) reassures researchers that you’re providing stable and coherent responses.
etic or emic?
Measuring the Big Five: Emic vs. Etic Approach
When studying personality, two primary approaches are used to measure the Big Five model across cultures: Emic and Etic.
Etic Approach: This approach assumes that the Big Five personality traits are universal and cross-culturally valid. It tests whether a theoretical personality model, like the Big Five, can be successfully replicated in different cultural contexts. This approach focuses on finding similarities across various populations.
Emic Approach: This approach emphasizes the cultural relevance of personality characteristics. It aims to identify personality traits that are specific to particular cultures, rather than assuming a universal structure. The emphasis is on the individual differences that arise within a cultural context.
Support for the Five-Factor Model (Big Five)
Both Emic and Etic approaches have shown support for the Big Five personality traits.
Emic (Lexical) Approach:
In this approach, the lexical hypothesis is applied, where personality descriptors from different languages are analyzed. For example, Saucier & Goldberg (2001) re-analyzed data from instruments measuring other personality models and found a five-factor solution.
German language studies of personality descriptors (500 words) also revealed the five-factor structure (Saucier & Ostendorf, 1999), supporting the universality of the Big Five.
Etic Approach:
The Big Five has been translated into several languages and consistently produced the same structure across these languages (McCrae et al., 1997), reinforcing its cross-cultural applicability.
Stability over time: Research has shown that the Big Five traits remain stable across different time periods and cultures (McCrae et al., 1997).
six-factors?
Sixth Factor (HEXACO Model):
One proposal for expanding the Big Five model is the HEXACO model, which includes a sixth factor: Honesty-Humility. This was introduced by Ashton and Lee (2007). The HEXACO model suggests that Honesty-Humility captures traits like fairness, modesty, and sincerity, which are important in some cultures, such as the German language. This factor adds a new dimension to personality beyond OCEAN (Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism).
General Factor of Personality: The general factor of personality (Musek, 2007) posits that all personality traits can be divided into two broad dimensions:
Stability: Low Neuroticism (emotional stability), high Conscientiousness, and high Agreeableness.
Plasticity: High Extraversion and high Openness.
This model suggests that these dimensions may be part of an evolutionary process that favors certain traits for success in society. For instance, traits that align with stability (e.g., emotional stability and conscientiousness) are seen as favorable for long-term success, while plasticity (e.g., openness and extraversion) reflects a need for exploration and adaptability.
One Factor?: Some argue for the possibility of a single general factor of personality, often referred to as the GFP (General Factor of Personality). The hypothesis behind this is that humans have evolved to exhibit traits that would be beneficial in society, such as low neuroticism and high conscientiousness. The theory also touches upon social desirability, which suggests that people may self-report traits they perceive as socially desirable, either consciously or unconsciously, which could affect personality test results.
Idealization in Personality Tests:
One key consideration when interpreting personality tests is idealization—the tendency of individuals to present themselves in a more favorable light, consciously or unconsciously. This is particularly relevant when personality tests are self-reported, as people may endorse traits they believe are socially desirable (e.g., positive emotions, assertiveness, etc.).
genetics?
Behavioral Genetics studies the influence of genetic factors on individual differences in behavior, including personality. It looks at how traits are passed down from one generation to the next and examines the interplay between genetic and environmental influences.
Research in behavioral genetics has shown that genetic factors play a significant role in shaping personality traits, particularly traits like neuroticism and extraversion. For example, studies on twin and adoption populations show that identical twins tend to have more similar personalities than fraternal twins, indicating a genetic component to personality.
However, environmental influences (such as upbringing, culture, and life experiences) also play a critical role in shaping individual personality. Therefore, personality is a product of both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment).
Genotype:
The internal genetic code or blueprint for constructing and maintaining a living individual.
Made up of genes, which are instructions for building proteins in the body.
The genotype is inherited from one’s parents and remains largely unchanged throughout life.
Phenotype:
The observable traits of an individual (e.g., physical attributes like height, eye color, or behavioral traits like extraversion).
The phenotype is a result of both genotype (genetic factors) and environmental factors.
Phenotype = Genotype + Environmental factors.
Heritability refers to the proportion of observed variation in a trait within a population that can be attributed to genetic variation. It helps to estimate the extent to which genetic differences contribute to individual differences in traits (e.g., personality, intelligence).
Heritability estimate (h²):
A statistical concept that quantifies how much of the variation in a phenotype (e.g., personality trait) is due to genetic factors.
The heritability estimate ranges from 0 to 1:
0 means the trait is not influenced by genetics.
1 means the trait is entirely due to genetic factors.
What heritability is not:
Heritability does not mean that a trait is 100% due to genetics in an individual. It only refers to the population level, estimating how much of the variance in the trait is due to genetics within a population.
Heritability does not tell us about specific gene/environment interactions for an individual or provide insights into the absolute influence of genetics on a trait in a particular person.
adoption studies
Adoption studies are a useful method for studying heritability because they separate the influences of genetics and environment. By comparing the similarities between adopted children and their biological vs. adoptive parents, researchers can determine how much of a personality trait is influenced by genetics (heritability) versus the environment.
Loehlin, Willerman, and Horn (1985) conducted an adoption study examining extraversion. They found that the biological parents’ influence on personality was greater than the adoptive parents’ influence:Loehlin, Willerman, and Horn (1985) conducted an adoption study to assess the genetic influence on extraversion by comparing personality traits between biological and adoptive parents. They found that personality traits such as social presence and sociability were more strongly correlated with the biological parents than with the adoptive parents, suggesting that genetic factors play a larger role in shaping personality. Specifically, the study showed that traits like extraversion were more similar between adopted children and their biological parents, indicating a higher heritable component.
