L3: Better framing for an essay Flashcards
premack principle
The Premack Principle, proposed by David Premack, suggests that more probable behaviours can be used to reinforce less probable behaviours. In other words, individuals are more likely to perform a low-frequency behaviour if it gives access to a high-frequency, preferred activity. Premack demonstrated this in a study involving 31 first-grade children, where he found that behaviours such as eating candy (a highly preferred activity) could be used to reinforce less preferred behaviours like playing a pinball machine — and vice versa for children who preferred pinball. This challenged traditional reinforcement theory by showing that reinforcers are not universal; rather, they are relative to the individual’s behavioural preferences. The study’s findings highlight how reinforcement is context- and person-dependent, and they provided an empirical basis for personalised behavioural interventions, particularly in educational and therapeutic settings.
skinner and superstitious behaviour
“Skinner’s demonstration of superstitious behaviour in pigeons has implications for instrumental conditioning in humans. It highlights how humans, like animals, can develop behaviour-outcome associations even when there is no true contingency, suggesting a tendency toward operant misattribution. This underscores the brain’s drive to seek patterns and causal relationships, which—while adaptive—can also lead to irrational or maladaptive behaviours based on coincidental reinforcement.”
addicition
Addiction is a process marked by the repeated and intense motivation to engage in a behavior, such as drug use. This motivation is acquired through the continuous engagement in the behavior itself, but unlike survival behaviors, it often leads to significant unintended harm, such as physical and mental health issues, neglect of responsibilities, and potential overdose. According to DSM-IV and DSM-V criteria, addiction is characterized by withdrawal, tolerance, and other signs when two or more of these factors are present.
Addiction follows distinct stages: initiation, maintenance (regular use), and cessation. During initiation, an individual may begin using drugs due to positive reinforcement, such as the pleasurable effects from a first cocaine high at a party. As the behavior becomes habitual, the person enters the maintenance stage, where the use of the drug is driven by negative reinforcement—seeking the drug to avoid the aversive symptoms of withdrawal. In some cases, drugs like heroin or opioids are used to escape the discomfort of withdrawal, reinforcing the cycle. The cessation stage is marked by the extinction of the behavior, where a pharmacological intervention such as naloxone, which blocks opioid receptors, can disrupt the addictive process. However, relapse remains common as drug-seeking behavior often continues even when pleasurable effects are absent.
The incentive-sensitization theory suggests that as addiction develops, drug-taking behaviors increase, but the pleasure derived from the drug does not necessarily increase. According to Robinson and Berridge (2000), the drive to take drugs may be influenced less by the immediate pleasurable experience and more by a heightened desire or craving for the drug, regardless of its immediate rewarding effects. Lamb et al. (1991) supported this notion through a study involving opioid-addicted individuals. They found that even when individuals were given higher doses of morphine, their motivation to work for the drug did not correspond to increased pleasure. Rather, the motivation to take the drug was driven by the craving itself, indicating that addiction can persist even without the expected pleasurable outcomes.
Negative reinforcement also plays a critical role in the maintenance of addiction. As individuals become tolerant to the drug’s effects, they may require larger doses to achieve the same effect, and continued use becomes a strategy to avoid withdrawal symptoms. Koob et al. (2004) highlighted how certain psychoactive drugs, such as cocaine, may not induce strong withdrawal effects but still remain highly addictive. In contrast, some drugs, like antidepressants, may produce withdrawal symptoms but are not considered addictive (Jaffe, 1992).
What makes a drug particularly addictive is its ability to activate both the incentive (wanting) and pleasure (liking) systems in the brain. The intense memory of pleasure from drug use can serve as a potent temptation to use again. Additionally, drugs that produce withdrawal symptoms can create a cycle of dependence. For example, cocaine and amphetamines cause neural sensitization of dopamine neurons, leading to exaggerated cravings that persist even after the withdrawal phase has ended. This mechanism explains why recovered addicts can still experience cravings and relapse long after rehabilitation, as the desire for the drug often outweighs the actual pleasure experienced during use.
Craving and relapse are also influenced by conditioned cues. Boileau et al. (2007) demonstrated that environmental cues associated with drug use, such as the context in which a drug was previously consumed, can trigger dopamine release and cravings, even in the absence of the drug itself. This illustrates how the brain can become conditioned to expect the euphoric effects of drug use when exposed to specific cues, further reinforcing addictive behavior.
Overall, the process of addiction is driven by both negative reinforcement, through the avoidance of withdrawal symptoms, and positive reinforcement, particularly through the desire to relive the pleasure associated with the drug. However, as the incentive-sensitization theory suggests, the motivation to seek drugs often becomes more about the craving than the enjoyment, explaining why individuals continue to engage in drug-taking behavior despite diminishing returns on pleasure.
ABC approach
Self-Behaviour Modification - The ABC Approach
The ABC approach to self-behaviour modification involves a structured method for changing behaviour. The first step is to specify the behaviour to change, ensuring that it is clear and measurable. A baseline frequency of the behaviour is then measured to understand how often it occurs before any intervention. This baseline is crucial because without it, there’s no way to objectively assess progress or success.
Next, the antecedents (A) are identified. These are the triggers or circumstances that prompt the behaviour. Understanding the antecedents allows for more effective intervention. Following this, response substitution (B) comes into play, which involves replacing the undesirable behaviour with a more desirable one.
The final step involves arranging new consequences (C). These consequences can either be rewarding or punishing. Positive reinforcement is often used to encourage the desired behaviour, while negative reinforcement may be employed to remove an aversive stimulus following a behaviour. In some cases, extinction (removing reinforcement for the undesirable behaviour) or negative punishment (removing a positive stimulus) might be used. Finally, positive punishment, which adds an unpleasant consequence, can be used if necessary.
In the context of patient care, such as for someone with schizophrenia, it is essential to analyse how behaviour modification will impact their overall health and well-being. For example, if a patient has lost weight and improved their health through modified behaviour, this could decrease their risk for certain diseases. Additionally, positive behaviour changes might lead to increased social acceptance and improved interactions with others, such as dressing more appropriately or receiving less aggression from others.
Once the antecedents and baseline have been assessed, the next phase is to introduce reinforcement strategies. For instance, differential reinforcement of alternative behaviours can be used to strengthen desirable actions. Over time, the goal is to move through strategies like extinction, negative reinforcement, negative punishment, and, if necessary, positive punishment, to promote sustainable behaviour change.
Skinner’s experiment
In B.F. Skinner’s foundational experiments on operant conditioning, animals were trained to associate specific behaviors with consequences such as rewards or punishments. These experiments typically involved an acquisition phase, during which the animal learned to associate a particular action—such as pressing a lever—with a positive outcome, like receiving food. Through repeated exposure to this stimulus–response pattern, the behavior was reinforced. This positive reinforcement increased the likelihood that the animal would press the lever again in the future, as it resulted in a desirable outcome.
However, Skinner also demonstrated the power of negative reinforcement. For example, if a loud noise was continuously played in the box and pressing the lever caused the noise to stop, the animal would learn to press the lever to remove the unpleasant stimulus. This is a classic case of negative reinforcement, where the removal of an aversive condition strengthens a behavior.
In contrast, positive punishment was used to decrease unwanted behavior. If the animal received an electric shock upon pressing the lever, it would learn to stop pressing it. The addition of an unpleasant consequence (the shock) serves to weaken or eliminate the behavior over time.
Skinner and other researchers also introduced the concept of discriminative stimuli (SD) in their experiments. A discriminative stimulus is a signal or cue in the environment that indicates whether a behavior will be reinforced or punished. For instance, a light or specific sound could serve as the SD. If the light was on, pressing the lever would dispense food; if it was off, the behavior would no longer be reinforced. Over time, the animal learned to discriminate between these conditions and only pressed the lever when the light was on.
Similarly, a sound cue such as a buzzer could be used to signal when food was available upon lever pressing. In the absence of the sound, the lever press would not yield any reward. These environmental cues played a crucial role in shaping behavior, illustrating how animals—and by extension, humans—can learn to adapt their actions based on the context provided by external stimuli.
Overall, Skinner’s work highlighted how behavior could be modified through reinforcement and punishment, and how environmental cues can powerfully influence learned responses.
what makes reinforcers reinforce
Primary reinforcers are naturally reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic biological needs, such as food and water. These reinforcers function through drive reduction—reducing internal states like hunger or thirst. However, the effectiveness of primary reinforcers can depend on the individual’s current state. For example, food may be highly motivating for a hungry person but less so if the person is already full, illustrating the concept of incentive motivation.
The brain’s reward system, particularly within the basal ganglia and its dopaminergic pathways, plays a central role in processing rewards. Experimental brain stimulation in these areas can artificially activate feelings of reward and drive, similar to how certain drugs can impact this system and influence behaviour.
In addition to biological drives, humans are also highly responsive to social stimuli. Inclusion and exclusion within social groups can serve as powerful reinforcers or punishments. For example, social exclusion can act as a potent punishment due to our innate need for social connection.
Furthermore, informational feedback can function as a reinforcer. Gaining new knowledge or receiving feedback on performance can motivate continued engagement in certain behaviours, reinforcing learning and adaptation.
factors effecting reinforcement effectiveness
The effectiveness of reinforcement can be influenced by several key factors. One such factor is the amount of reinforcement. In animal studies, for instance, a very small quantity of food may not be sufficient to elicit or maintain a desired behaviour, whereas a larger or more rewarding amount may produce stronger responses.
Another important factor is the motivational need or drive for the reinforcer. If an animal is already satiated, a food reward may no longer be effective. This highlights the role of internal states in modulating how powerful a reinforcer is—reinforcement depends not only on what is offered but also on whether the subject wants or needs it.
The contrast effect further demonstrates how reinforcement can be influenced by expectations or comparisons. A subject may be satisfied with a certain reward until they learn that a better reward was previously or is currently available. For example, if a mouse is initially given a large amount of food for pressing a lever and is then given a much smaller amount, it may show reduced motivation compared to a mouse that has always received the smaller amount. Similarly, in humans, someone might feel content with their salary until discovering that a colleague earns more, resulting in dissatisfaction despite no change in their own pay.
Lastly, the timing of reinforcement plays a critical role. Delays between the behaviour and the reinforcement can reduce the association between the two. If reinforcement is delivered too long after the behaviour, the subject may not connect the reward with the correct action, weakening the learning process.
disequillibrium hypothesis
The Disequilibrium Hypothesis
The disequilibrium hypothesis, proposed by William Timberlake (1980), offers an alternative explanation for what makes a particular activity reinforcing. According to this hypothesis, an organism has a natural, proportional distribution of activities that it engages in—this is considered its behavioural equilibrium. When access to one of these preferred activities is restricted, the organism is pushed out of this equilibrium. In such cases, the previously restricted activity can act as a reinforcer.
Timberlake demonstrated that any activity can serve as a reinforcer if access to it is made contingent upon performing another behaviour. For example, in an experiment with rats, access to a running wheel can be used to reinforce a desirable behaviour—but only if the wheel is not freely available in the rat’s environment. By removing the wheel from the cage and only allowing access after the rat performs a certain action (e.g., pressing a lever), the running activity becomes a valuable reinforcer. This approach highlights that reinforcement is not solely about the inherent qualities of an activity, but also about how access to it is managed. In essence, restricting access to a normally frequent behaviour can elevate its value as a reward, helping shape and maintain other behaviours.
reinforcer types
Instrumental conditioning distinguishes between primary and secondary reinforcers. A primary negative reinforcer is something that is innately unpleasant, such as an electric shock (as seen in prior lectures with dogs). On the other hand, secondary negative reinforcers acquire aversive properties through learning, like nagging from a carer. If such nagging stops when a child performs a desired behaviour, the removal of the negative stimulus reinforces that behaviour.
punishment
Positive punishment involves introducing an aversive stimulus, for example, shouting at a boyfriend. Negative punishment entails removing something pleasant, such as withholding hugs. For punishment to be effective, it should be immediate, inevitable, and severe. However, its long-term efficacy is questionable. Punishment only suppresses behaviour temporarily and fails to teach what should be done. Once the threat is gone, the behaviour may return. It can also have unintended emotional consequences, such as generalised fear, and may promote aggression toward the punishing agent.
schedules of reinforcement
Once a behaviour is established, it can be maintained by different schedules of reinforcement, each with unique behavioural outcomes:
Fixed-ratio: Reinforcement is given after a set number of responses. For example, an animal receives food after every fifth lever press.
Fixed-interval: Reinforcement is provided after a fixed period, e.g., every 5 minutes regardless of how many times the lever is pressed.
Variable-ratio: Reinforcement comes after a random number of responses, encouraging persistent behaviour. This is commonly seen in gambling, such as with slot machines.
Variable-interval: Reinforcement is delivered after varying time intervals, like checking for new emails.
Behaviours maintained under partial reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than those under continuous reinforcement. For instance, pigeons reinforced every 5 minutes may still peck up to 6,000 times per hour, taking days to extinguish the behaviour. Among these, variable-ratio schedules are the most resistant to extinction and generate the most frequent and reliable responses.
shaping
Shaping and Chaining
Shaping involves reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behaviour. For example, training a pigeon to press a button might involve rewarding it first for turning toward the button, then walking toward it, raising its head, and finally pecking it.
A famous example of shaping is seen in The Brelands’ Animal Behaviour Enterprises, where animals like “Priscilla the Fastidious Pig” were trained to perform complex tasks such as using a vacuum cleaner or answering quiz questions. These impressive behaviours were achieved by shaping, and multiple pigs were trained to perform the same routine as each outgrew her role.
biological boundries on learning
Biological Boundaries on Learning
While instrumental conditioning is powerful, biological predispositions can limit what can be learned. This phenomenon, known as instinctive drift, was observed by Breland & Breland (1961) when raccoons trained to deposit coins began obsessively rubbing them together instead. Despite nonreinforcement, this natural behaviour persisted, making the task unfeasible.
Similarly, Petrinovich and Bolles (1954) demonstrated how natural instincts can override conditioning. Animals placed in a maze would return to a previously unexplored arm, even if food had been placed in the other arm previously. However, when water (a stationary resource in nature) was the reward, the animals returned to the same arm, reflecting how natural behaviours align more with certain reinforcers.
cognitive influences
Cognitive Influences on Instrumental Conditioning
Beyond biology, cognition also plays a role. Learning occurs most effectively when an organism perceives a clear contingency between action and outcome. Seligman’s Learned Helplessness study exemplifies this: “yoked” dogs that couldn’t control shocks in Phase 1 failed to learn escape responses in Phase 2, having internalised helplessness.
Tolman and Honzik’s (1948) study on latent learning further challenged behaviourist views. Rats that explored a maze without rewards showed little improvement. However, once rewards were introduced, their performance improved rapidly, nearly matching rats that had been reinforced from the beginning. This suggests that the rats had formed cognitive maps, learning about the maze without immediate reinforcement.
