L11-14 Flashcards
The patient H.M. underwent an experimental surgical procedure of removing his … lobe to relieve epileptic seizures
TEMPORAL
HM’s surgery resulted in severe … deficits
MEMORY
Inability to recognize objects … is one of memory functions HM had RETAINED (kept)
Agnosia
HM could acquire and express NEW skills and they IMPROVED, meaning he was able to update his … network of … connections
NEURAL and SYNAPTIC
Skills such as
- reading words presented backwards
- mirror drawing
improved, even though HM could NEVER … that he had been asked to perform
REMEMBER
HM’s memory loss is known as …
AMNESIA
… and prolonged study on HM tell us about what MEMORY is and how the brain manages to RECORD our PAST experiences
AMNESIA
… demonstrates a degree of functional INDEPENDENCE from other cognitive capacities
Amnesia
Memory is …
- the ability to RECALL or … previous experience
- … representation of previous experience
RECOGNIZE and MENTAL
HM’s surgery removed the BILATERAL MEDIAL … lobe including the …
TEMPORAL and HIPPOCAMPUS
Short term memory (=working memory) is considered as an …
Executive function
… cortex is mainly involved in working memory
Prefrontal
Various cortical and subcortical areas
- hippocampus
- limbic system
- basal ganglia
are involved in … memory
Long term
Implicit (Unconscious; Procedural) and Explicit (Conscious; Declarative) memories are 2 categories of … memory
Long term
Procedural memory
- demonstrates … such as a skill or conditioned response
- … events when facilitated
KNOWLEDGE and RECALL
Declarative memory
- recall or … SPECIFIC info
- often affected in AMNESIA
Retrieve
Bottom up processing is for … information where info is encoded in the SAME way it was perceived
Implicit
What are 2 ways of ENCODING memories?
BOTTOM-UP and TOP-DOWN
Top down processing is for … information where info is recognized BEFORE it is encoded
Explicit
Tulving distinguished 2 types of EXPLICIT memory which are
EPISODIC and SEMANTIC
Episodic memory - ‘My dad went to Barcelona last week’ - has a potential to become … over time
Semantic
Semantic memory - Temporal lobe is involved in processing auditory information and encoding of memory - often requires … exposures
several
Events PRIOR to damage is …
Retrograde
Events FOLLOWING the damage is …
Anterograde
The timeline of … amnesia can vary from minutes to decades
and is often TEMPORARY
Retrograde
The severity of damage done on … is directly proportional to the LENGTH of retrograde amnesia
Hippocampus
… is located deep in the brain, hidden within the medial part of the temporal lobe
Hippocampus
There is a GREATER compromise (harm) of MORE recent memories than the remote ones = … gradient
Temporal
Consolidation of memory over time in Amnesia means you are more likely to forget memories that are … to the damage in timeline
Nearer
Amnesia affects various … modalities:
- visual
- auditory
- somesthetic (touch, temperature sensitivity, and pain)
- olfactory
Sensory
Amnesia affects
- verbal and …
- meaningful and …
- spatial and …
nonverbal - nonsensical - nonspatial
Amnesia usually affects … memory of Explicit memory of Longterm memory
Episodic
Formation of new EPISODIC memories involves the … lobe, particularly the HIPPOCAMPUS
Medial Temporal
Ongoing debate:
Does episodic memory always rely on the … or is the information TEMPORARILY stored in the … before being CONSOLIDATED in the Neocortex (the 4 lobes)
HIPPOCAMPUS
Neocortex consists of … lobes
4
Episodic memory is affected by EMOTIONAL significance, involving the …
AMYGDALA
Neural circuits for Explicit memory:
… lobe consists of 3 cortices: Perirhinal, Parahippocampal and Entorhinal cortex
Medial Temporal
… cortices carry out cognitive processing, specifically reward-based decision-making
Cingulate
Neocortex and Cingulate cortices RECIPROCATE with … cortices (2)
- ParaHippocampal
- PerirHinal
PerirHinal cortex SEND info to … cortex and ParaHippocampal cortex RECEIVES info from … cortex
EntorHinal
EntorHinal cortex RECIPORCATES with the …
Hippocampus
PARahippocampal cortex
- receives connections from … cortex
- has a role in … processing
PArietal and VISUO-SPATIAL
PerirHinal cortex
- receives connections from VISUAL regions of the … stream (known as the WHAT pathway)
- has a role in … object memory
Ventral - Visual
EntorHinal cortex
- has an … function
- is the location of … CELL DEATH in AlzHeimer’s disease
INTEGRATIVE - INITIAL
Loss of ability to learn NEW info is … amnesia
Anterograde
Loss of ability to retrieve prior info is … amnesia
Retrograde
KorsaKoff syndrome is both … amnesias
Antero and Retro
KorsaKoff syndrome is caused by damage to … (hypo/thalamus, mammillary bodies)
Diencephalon
Chronic alcoholism or Malnutrition resulting in vitamin B1 deficiency could result in … syndrome
KorsaKoff
Confabulation in amnesiacs occur when patients fail to … currently irrelevant memories in favor of currently relevant ones
INHIBIT
2 types of Confabulations are
Provoked and Spontaneous
… confabulation occurs when one is pressed to remember details of a memory beyond their memory recall and can happen to non-injured people
Provoked
… confabulation occurs to people with specific types of brain injury where they generate confabulations without any EXTERNAL cues
Spontaneous
Confabulation is associated with the
- Medial …
- … cortex
- Links from the …-…
ORBITOFRONTAL - PREFRONTAL - HIPPOCAMPUS and HYPOTHALAMUS
Amnesia involves the … lobe and Confabulation involves the … lobe
Temporal - Frontal
Clive Wearning - Man with 7 seconds memory - represents an … patient
Amnesia
Exceptional ability to recall autobiographical information automatically is called HSAM or …
Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory
HSAM participants have … specificity of recalling autobiographical memories, not digit-span forward, verbal-paired associates and visual reproduction
Domain
HSAM patients have different … and … matter CONCENTRATIONS in 9 brain regions
WHITE and GREY
Autobiographical network seems to involve:
- inferior and middle .. gyri
- anterior insula
- para… gyrus (hint: neural network of explicit memory)
TEMPORAL - paraHIPPOCAMPAL
Progressive loss of neuronal function and death of neurons associated with aging is …
NeuroDegeneration
Neurodegenerative diseases include:
Common (2) and less common (2)
Common: AlzHeimer and Parkinson’s
Less common: Huntington’s and motor-neuron
Prevalence of neurodegenerative conditions continues to … as the average age of the population increases. This implies: less workforce and more investment on healthcare for elderly
Increase
AlzHeimer is the most common form of … taking 60-70%
Dementia
… is a syndrome with 50million diagnosed people worldwide in which there is a deterioration in
- memory
- thinking
- behaviour
- ability to perform everyday activities
Dementia
Dementia:
- Age onset is …
- More common in …
+ 65 years old and Females
Auguste D. suffered:
- quick change in personality
- memory loss
- confusion
- unpredictable beahavior
- paranoia
- hallucinations
which are symptoms of … disease
Alzheimer
Alzheimer cuases extensive cortical ATROPHY or …
Shrinking
The 2 types of abnormal deposits/AGGREGATIONS found in AD patients are
- NeuroFibraillary … (TAU) = inside neurons
- Neuritic … (Amyloid) = between neurons
Tangles - Plaques
Genetic predisposition of AD:
Strongest identified risk is the ApoE4 … which 1/4 of the population carry 1 copy of its gene
Protein
AD causes:
- Cortex shrinking/Atrophy
- Ventricles with CerebroSpinal fluid enlarging
- … shrinking
Hippocampus
Amyloid plaque:
- .. system (entorhinal cortex and hippocampus-memory)
- Lobes (3) in more severe AD
- … cortices affected lastly
- Limbic
- Frontal, Temporal and Parietal
- Sensory and Motor
Tau protein is responsible for maintaining … within AXONS and spreads to Cell body and Dendrities
Stability
High levels of Amyloid-Beta alter … so that it cannot BIND properly to its usual targets within axons
TAU
Areas of cell damage in the brain CORRELATE better with … levels than amyloid-Beta
Tau
Moderate AD could cause … which is a Psychiatric Disorder
Depression
3 neurotransmitters involved in memory and learning (ADS)
AcetylCholine, Dopaime (reward) and Serotonin
2 Medications sued in AD treatment:
- … inhibitors (prevents acetylcholine breakdown to facilitate communication between neurons)
- …. antagonist (glutamate regulation which causes neuroToxicity)
AcetylCholineSterase - NMDA
Alternative therapies in AD …
Music and Art, Physical and Cognitive Training, Validation (working through emotions behind hardships) and Reminiscence therapy (happy memories)
A neurodegenerative disorder that affects predominantly DOPAMINERGIC neurons in Substantia Nigra (dopamine producing cells decrease)
Parkinson’s disease
DopaminErgic means
dopamine-producing
PD has worldwide 9.5 million patients
- age of onset is …
- more prevalent in …
plus 60 - males (x2 than females)
Slowness of movement in PD is called
BradyKinesia
Distinctive, less steady walk that arises from changes in posture, slowness of movement (bradykinesia) and a shortened stride is called …
Parkinsonian Gait
PD symptoms:
- Pill-Rolling tremor (mostly hands)
- … = movement slowness
- Limb …
- … and Balance problems
BradyKinesia - Rigidity - Gait
A person with this tremor may appear to be rolling a pill or small object between their thumb and index finger. This is … tremor found in PD
Pill-Rolling
Which of the 2 neurodegenerative disorders have a younger oneset (<50) when it comes to genetic predisposition?
PD
PD primarily affects the … which is a Subcortical structures found deep in the brain
Basal Ganglia
Basal Ganglia is involved in
- direct and indirect pathways of facilitating and inhibiting …
- motivation and REWARD processing
Movement
PD patients’ … (internally-generated) movements are particularly affected and less to EXTERNAL stimuli
Automatic/Spontaneous
IN PD, dopamine producing cells in the … called the Black Substance decrease, which impair movement (but its receptors are present)
SubStantia Nigria
Many people with … develop …
(hint: dementia and PD)
PD - dementia
This dementia has an onset at least 1 year AFTER diagnosis based on motor signs
PD
This dementia develops BEFORE or ALONGSIDE motor signs
Lewy Body
LevoDopa (also called Ldopa) is a … treatment for Parkinson’s but it is not a cure
Sympotamtic
L-dopa crosses the … (BBB) and converts to DOPAMINE, but has side-effects including abnormal, uncontrolled involuntary movements = DysKinesia)
Blood-Brain Barrier
Other treatments of PD include:
- DBS where … and impulse generator battery (called an IPG) are implanted to provide electrical stimulation to targeted areas in the brain that control movement
- exercise, music, dance therapies
Electrodes
In treating PD< dancing could help due to Action Observation and … Imagery where both Simulation and Observation improve the actual movement
Motor
A neurodegeneration
- caused by genetic predisposition of an AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
- average onset of 40 years
- DysKinesias
- only Symptotomatic treatments available
Huntington’s disease
HP has 4 major changes:
- Movement
- Behaviour
- Mood (personality change)
- Cognition
MBMC
Excessive involuntary movements of HD is called
Chorea
Abnormal sustained muscle contractions in HD is called
Dystonia
HD is a gain of function mutation because a mutated … is created
Protein
HD primarily affects … and other cortical, subcortical areas
Basal Ganglia (motor control)
Acquired neurological disorders include: (2)
- Traumatic Brain Injury
- Stroke
4 major symptoms of HD:
- Chorea
- Impaired coordination and …
- Muscle …
- Difficulty … and or Swallowing
+ dementia and depression
Balance - Rigidity - Speaking
Acquired neurological disorders can be caused by
- Traumatic or non…
- Sudden or … decline
- Focal (very specific brain region) or … (different areas)
Traumatic - Gradual - Diffuse
Sclerosis in MS means … and ‘hardness’ in greek
Scars
In MS, neurons around the site of … tend to go through apoptosis which slows down or blocks signals from being transmitted
DeMyelination
An auto-immune, progressive inflammation of myelin sheath in the CNS is called
- 2 million worlswide
- onset: 20 to 30
- 3:1 Male:Female
Multiple ScleRosis
3 subtypes of MS:
- …-Remitting (85%)
- Primary-progressive
- Secondary-progressive
Relapsing
About 85% of people have this MS
- recurrent acute relapse
- partial or total recovery
Relapsing Remitting (RR)
Accounts for 10% of cases
- no attacks
- progressive and steady decline of neurological functions
Primary-Progressive (PP)
- Gradual transition from RR MS
- Steady decline apart from relapse episodes
Secondary-Progressive (SP)
MS Risk factors:
- genetic component
- geographical area: the FURTHER from the EQUATOR you live in, the more … you are (due to low Vitamin D)
- smoking
- obesity
Susceptible
MS brain changes:
- Acute inflammation of … sheath surrounding the axons of the CNS
- Formation of hard … at the demyelination site (Optic nerve, brainstem, basal ganglia, spinal cord)
Myelin - Plaques
MS patients:
- profound …
- mild cognitive functions or … loss (but varies from person to person)
Fatigue - Memory
Phineas Gage is an example of … patient
TBI
TBI:
- less than 50 million
- most common in young males
- 1/2 accompanied by other injuries
has 3 consequences:
Sensorimotor, Cognitive, Behavioural
… damage (contrecoup injury) is opposite site impairment
ContraLateral
In TBI, … forces is
- jolting extremely fast
- where white and grey matters with different densities that move at different speeds cause DIFFUSE AXONAL INJURY (DAI)
Rotational
TBI mostly damages (2) regions
Frontal and Temporal
In TBI
- … is low blood pressure
- … is oxygen deprivation
- Cerebral … and swelling (scars in tissues)
- … is water gathering on the surface of the brain
- Infection
- Epilepsy
- HypoTension
- Hypoxia
- contusions
- HydroCephalus
Acute TBI could result in:
- … = unconsciousness
- Disorientation
- Cognitive
- Personality and Mood
Coma
… neglect which is inability to attend tot the contralateral side of space is caused by STROKES
Hemi-Spatial
Strokes:
- 80 million
- plus 65 years
- also called CVA which stands for …
- 2nd highest cause of death and 3rd highest cause of disability
CerebroVascular Accident
The 2 types of Strokes are
IsChemic and HaeMorrHagic
Blockage of blood vessel in brain is … stroke
- Embolic
- Thrombotic
IsChemic
Embolic is when … clot from elsewhere in the body blocks the vessels (IsChemic)
blood
Thrombotic is when blood clot develops in … supplying blood to BRAIN (IsChemic)
Artery
Bursting of vessels is …
- IntraCerebral (deep inside the brain)
- SubArarchNoid (surface of the brain)
HaeMorrHagic
FAST in strokes stands for:
Facial - Arm - Speech -Time
Strokes affecting the … lobe can cause movement impairments
Frontal
Paralysis or Weakness to one side of body due to strokes (contralateral to damage) is … or …
HemiPlegia or HemiParesis
Impairment in planning and executing movements caused by strokes is …
Apraxia
Agnosias (recognition disorders) and Hemispatial neglect can be caused by … in the … lobe
Strokes - Occipital
Treatments for … include: physiotherapy and wide variety of other therapies
strokes