L1: Intro_M Flashcards
provide a framework that helps us understand the human body
Anatomy and Physiology
studies the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Anatomy
concerns the function of the body, in other words, how the body parts work and carry out their life sustaining activities.
Physiology
when we refer to body structures and physiological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like), we will assume that we are talking about a healthy young reference man weighing about
70 kilograms (kg)
when we refer to body structures and physiological values (body temperature, heart rate, and the like), we will assume that we are talking about a healthy young reference woman weighing about
57 kilograms (kg)
is the study of large body structures visible to the naked eye, such as the heart, lungs, and kidneys.
Gross or macroscopic anatomy
the term ___ (from Greek, meaning “to cut apart”) relates most closely to gross anatomy because in such studies preserved animals or their organs are dissected (cut up) to be examined.
anatomy
Subdivision of Gross Anatomy; all the structures (muscles, bones, blood vessels, nerves, etc.) in a particular region of the body, such as the abdomen or leg, are examined at the same time.
Regional Anatomy
Subdivision of Gross Anatomy; body structure is studied system by system. For example, when studying the cardiovascular system, you would examine the heart and the blood vessels of the entire body.
Systemic Anatomy
Subdivisions of Gross Anatomy; the study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin surface.
Surface Anatomy
deals with structures too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Microscopic Anatomy
Subdivisions of Microscopic Anatomy which considers the cells of the body
Cytology
Subdivisions of Microscopic Anatomy which is the study of tissues
Histology
traces structural changes that occur throughout the life span.
Developmental Anatomy
a subdivision of developmental anatomy, concerns developmental changes that occur before birth.
Embryology
Branch of Anatomy that studies structural changes caused by disease.
Pathological Anatomy
Branch of Anatomy that studies internal structures as visualized by Xray images or specialized scanning procedures.
Radiographic Anatomy
feeling organs with your hands
Palpation
listening to organs with a stethoscope
Auscultation
Using ___, you can name its parts and describe how they are related
Anatomical terminology
Subdivision of Physiology that concerns kidney function and urine production.
Renal physiology
Subdivision of Physiology that explains the workings of the nervous system
Neurophysiology
Subdivision of Physiology that examines the operation of the heart and blood vessels.
Cardiovascular physiology
While ___ provides us with a static image of the body’s architecture, ___ reveals the body’s dynamic and animated workings.
anatomy; physiology
The concept which states that what a structure can do depends on its specific form.
Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function
It is the simplest level of the structural hierarchy. At this level, atoms, tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules such as water and proteins.
Chemical Level
are the basic components of cells
Organelles
smallest units of living things
Cells
All cells share some common functions, but individual cells vary widely in size and shape, reflecting their unique functions in the body.
Cellular level
The simplest living creatures are single cells, but in complex organisms such as human beings, the hierarchy continues on to the ___
Tissue level
are groups of similar cells that have a common function
Tissues
The four basic tissue types in the human body are
epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, connective tissue, and nervous tissue
Type of tissue that covers the body surface and lines its cavities
Epithelial tissue
Type of tissue that provides movement
Muscle tissue
Type of tissue that supports and protects body organs.
Connective tissue
Type of tissue that provides a means of rapid internal communication by transmitting electrical impulses.
Nervous tissue
is a discrete structure composed of at least two tissue types (four is more common) that performs a specific function for the body.
organ
At the ___, extremely complex functions become possible.
organ level
Organs that work together to accomplish a common purpose make up an
organ system
The highest level of organization is the ___, the living human being.
organism
represents the sum total of all structural levels working together to keep us alive.
organismal level
Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces)
Digestive system
Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide
Respiratory system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs
Cardiovascular system
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
Urinary system
Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Integumentary system
Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors, and sweat and oil glands
Integumentary System
Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
Skeletal System
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
Muscular System
As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands
Nervous System
Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
Endocrine System
Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
Cardiovascular System
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
Lymphatic System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. These exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
Respiratory System
Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Digestive System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance of the blood.
Urinary System
Overall function is production of offspring.
Male Reproductive System and Female Reproductive System
produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract.
Testes
produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus.
Ovaries
___ of female breasts producemilk to nourish the newborn.
Mammary glands
Every living organism must maintain its boundaries so that its internal environment (its inside) remains distinct from the external environment (its outside).
Maintaining Boundaries
In single-celled organisms, the ___ is a limiting membrane that encloses its contents and lets in needed substances while restricting entry of potentially damaging or unnecessary substances.
external boundary
All body cells are surrounded by a selectively permeable called
plasma membrane
The plasma membrane separates the ___ inside cells from the ___ outside. Part of the extracellular fluid (blood plasma) is enclosed in blood vessels. The remainder, the ___, surrounds and bathes all of our cells
intracellular fluid; extracellular fluid; interstitial fluid
This system is another important boundary that protects our internal organs from drying out (a fatal change), infection, and the damaging effects of heat, sunlight, and an unbelievable number of chemicals in the external environment.
Integumentary System
includes the activities promoted by the muscular system, such as propelling ourselves from one place to another by running or swimming, and manipulating the external environment with our nimble fingers
Movement
provides the bony framework that the muscles pull on as they work
Skeletal System
also occurs when substances such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are propelled through internal organs of the cardiovascular, digestive, and urinary systems, respectively.
Movement
the muscle cell’s ability to move by shortening is more precisely called
Contractility
is the ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment and then respond to them.
Responsiveness or excitability
involuntarily pulling your hand away from the painful stimulus
withdrawal reflex
Because nerve cells are highly excitable and communicate rapidly with each other via electrical impulses, the ___ is most involved with responsiveness
nervous system
is the breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules that can be absorbed into the blood.
Digestion
In a simple, one-celled organism such as an amoeba, the ___ itself is the “digestion factory,” but in the multicellular human body, the ___ performs this function for the entire body.
cell; digestive system
is a broad term that includes all chemical reactions that occur within body cells.
Metabolism
The process of breaking down substances into simpler building blocks
catabolism
The process of synthesizing more complex substances from simpler building blocks and using nutrients and oxygen to produce ATP, the energy rich molecules that power cellular activities via cellular respiration
anabolism
Metabolism is regulated largely by ___ secreted by endocrine system glands
hormones
is the process of removing wastes from the body
Excretion or excreta
occurs at the cellular and the organismal level. In cellular reproduction, the original cell divides, producing two identical daughter cells that may then be used for body growth or repair.
Reproduction
The ___ is directly responsible for producing offspring, but its function is exquisitely regulated by hormones of the endocrine system
Reproductive System
is an increase in size of a body part or the organism as a whole. It is usually accomplished by increasing the number of cells. However, individual cells also increase in size when not dividing.
Growth
For true growth to occur, ___ must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones.
constructive activities
These include nutrients (food), oxygen, water, and appropriate temperature and atmospheric pressure
survival needs
taken in via the diet, contain the chemical substances used for energy and cell building.
Nutrients
Most ___ foods are rich in carbohydrates, vitamins, and minerals, whereas most ___ foods are richer in proteins and fats.
plant-derived; animals
are the major energy fuel for body cells.
Carbohydrates
are essential for building cell structures.
Proteins and to a lesser extent fats
also provide a reserve of energy rich fuel.
Fats
are required for the chemical reactions that go on in cells and for oxygen transport in the blood.
Selected minerals and vitamins
helps to make bones hard and is required for blood clotting.
mineral calcium
All the nutrients in the world are useless unless this is also available.
Oxygen
Because the chemical reactions that release energy from foods are ___ that require oxygen, human cells can survive for only a few minutes without oxygen.
Oxidative reactions
Approximately ___% of the air we breathe is oxygen.
20
accounts for 50–60% of our body weight and is the single most abundant chemical substance in the body.
Water
It provides the watery environment necessary for chemical reactions and the fluid base for body secretions and excretions.
Water
We obtain water from ingested ___ and ___. We lose it from the body by ___ from the lungs and skin and in body excretions.
foods and liquids; evaporation
If chemical reactions are to continue at lifesustaining rates, this must be maintained.
normal body temperature
As body temperature drops below 37°C (98.6°F), ___ reactions become slower and slower, and finally stop. When body temperature is too high, ___ reactions occur at a frantic pace and body systems stop functioning.
metabolic; chemical
is the force that air exerts on the surface of the body. Breathing and gas exchange in the lungs depend on this appropriately
Atmodpheric pressure
ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously.
Homeostasis
an American physiologist of the early twentieth century, spoke of the “wisdom of the body,” and he coined the word homeostasis
Walter Cannon
it indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in which internal conditions vary, but always within relatively narrow limits.
Homeostasis
is the factor or event being regulated.
variable
All homeostatic control mechanisms are processes involving at least three components that work together to regulate the variable
receptor, control center, and effector
It is a sensor that monitors the environment. It responds to stimuli (changes) by sending information (input) along the afferent pathway to the second component, the control center.
Receptor
is the level (or range of levels) at which a variable is to be maintained.
set point
determines the set point, at which a variable is to be maintained. It analyzes the input it receives by comparing it to the set point and determines the appropriate response. Information (output) then flows from the control center along the efferent pathway to the third component, the effector.
control center
Information approaching the control center
afferent
Information that exits from the control center
efferent
carries out the control center’s response to the stimulus. The results of the response then feed back to influence the effect of the stimulus, either reducing it so that the whole control process is shut off, or enhancing it so that the whole process continues at an even faster rate.
effector
Most homeostatic control mechanisms are
Negative feedback mechanisms
In these systems, the output shuts off the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity. These mechanisms cause the variable to change in a direction opposite to that of the initial change, returning it to its “ideal” value.
Negative feedback mechanisms
The thermostat houses both the receptor and control center. In the human body, the thermostat is located in a part of the brain called ____ that operates in a similar fashion
hypothalamus
A good example of a hormonal negative feedback mechanism
control of blood sugar (glucose) by insulin
As blood sugar rises, receptors in the body sense this change, and the ___ (the control center) secretes insulin into the blood. This change in turn prompts body cells to absorb more glucose, removing it from the bloodstream. As blood sugar falls, the stimulus for insulin release ends.
pancreas
Aside from body temperature and blood sugar, other negative feedback mechanisms regulate heart rate, ___, the rate and depth of breathing, and ___
blood pressure; and blood levels of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and minerals.
produces change in variable.
Stimulus
detects change
Receptor
Information sent along afferent pathway to control center
Input
Information sent along efferent pathway to effector
Output
___ of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
Response
the initial response enhances the original stimulus so that further responses are even greater. This feedback mechanism is “positive” because the change that results proceeds in the same direction as the initial change, causing the variable to deviate further and further from its original value or range.
positive feedback mechanisms
usually control infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustments.
positive feedback mechanisms
Italian word that means to fall
cascades
Because of these characteristics, positive feedback mechanisms are often referred to as ___ that amplify the original stimulus
cascades
Two familiar examples of positive feedback mechanisms are
the enhancement of labor contractions during birth and blood clotting.
a hypothalamic hormone, intensifies labor contractions during the birth of a baby
Oxytocin
regulates formation of a platelet plug.
positive feedback mechanisms
is a normal response to a break in the wall of a blood vessel and is an excellent example of an important body function controlled by positive feedback.
Blood clotting
are likely to race out of control, so they are rarely used to promote the moment to moment wellbeing of the body.
positive feedback mechanisms
The basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.
Cell
Words/Terms that describe the position of one body part relative to another.
Directional Terms
The stomach is ____ to the lungs;
Inferior
While the lungs are ____ to the heart.
Lateral
A dome-shaped muscle that separates the thoracic from the abdominal cavity.
Diaphragm
The serous membrane of the cavity surrounding the lungs is called the ____.
Parietal Pleura
In which abdominopelvic quadrant would pain from an appendicitis be felt?
Right Lower Quadrant
This serous membrane lines the abdominal wall.
Parietal Peritoneum
An imaging technique which uses magnetic fields and radio waves to create detailed images of tissues and organs in the body.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging
The anatomical term for the hollow behind the knee is ____.
Popliteal
In a negative feedback mechanism, a _____ monitors changes and sends input to a _____ where input is evaluated and output commands are sent to _____ that produces a response.
Receptor; control center; effector
The maintenance of a relatively stable internal conditions despite changes that occur inside and outside of the body.
Homeostasis
A form of a positive feedback mechanism in which the fetal distention of the cervix stimulates a series of neuroendocrine responses leading to oxytocin production.
Ferguson Reflex
The anatomical term for the front region of the elbow is ____.
Antecubital
The concept in HAP which states that “what a human structure can do depends on its specific form”.
Principle of Complementarity
Homeostasis is so important that most disease can be regarded as a result of its disturbance, a condition called
Homeostatic Imbalance
The anatomical reference point is a standard body position called the
Anatomical Position
allow us to explain where one body structire is in relation to another
Directional Terms
The two fundamental divisions of our body are
axial and appendicular
which makes up the main axis of our body, includes the head, neck, and trunk
axial part
consists of the appendages, or limbs, which are attached to the body’s axis.
appendicular part
used to designate specific areas within these major body divisions
Regional Terms
For anatomical studies, the body is often cut, or sectioned, along a flat surface called a
Plane
is named for the plane along which it is cut.
Section
is a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts.
Sagittal Plane
A sagittal plane that lies exactly in the midline is the
Median Plane or Midsagittal Plane
All other sagittal planes, offset from the midline, are
Parasagitall Planes
like sagittal planes, lie vertically. They divide the body into anterior and posterior parts
Frontal Plane or Coronal Plane
runs horizontally from right to left, dividing the body into superior and inferior parts
Transverse or Horizontal Plane
A transverse section is also called a
Cross Section
are cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and the vertical planes.
Oblique Section
[DT] Toward the head end or upper part of a structure or the body; above
Superior (cranial)
The head is ___ to the abdomen.
superior
[DT] Away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure or the body; below
Inferior (caudal)
The navel is ___ to the chin.
inferior
[DT] Toward or at the front of the body; in front of
Anterior (ventral)
The breastbone is ___ to the spine.
anterior
[DT] Toward or at the back of the body; behind
Posterior (dorsal)
The heart is ___ to the breastbone
posterior
[DT] Toward or at the midline of the body; on the inner side of
Medial
The heart is ___ to the arm
medial
[DT] Away from the midline of the body; on the outer side of
Lateral
The arms are ___ to the chest
lateral
[DT] Between a more medial and a more lateral structure
Intermediate
The collarbone is ___ between the breastbone and shoulder.
intermediate
[DT] Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Proximal
The elbow is ___ to the wrist
proximal
[DT] Farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
Distal
The knee is ___ to the thigh
distal
[DT] Toward or at the body surface
Superficial (external)
The skin is ___ to the skeletal muscles
superficial
[DT] Away from the body surface; more internal
Deep (internal)
The lungs are ___ to the skin.
deep
which protects the fragile nervous system organs, has two subdivisions the cranial and vertebral or spinal cavity
Dorsal Body Cavity
Subdivision of the Dorsal Body Cavity in the skull, encases the brain.
Cranial Cavity
Subdivision of the Dorsal Body Cavity which runs within the bony vertebral column, encloses the delicate spinal cord.
Vertebral or Spinal Cavity
Both the brain and the spinal cord are covered by membranes called
Meninges
The more anterior and larger of the closed body cavities is the ___. It also has two major subdivisions: thoracic and abdominopelvic cavity.
Ventral Body Cavity
The ventral body cavity houses internal organs collectively called the
Viscera
The superior subdivision of the Ventral Body Cavity is surrounded by the ribs and muscles of the chest.
Thoracic Cavity
The thoracic cavity is further subdivided into lateral ___ , each enveloping a lung, and the medial ___
Pleural Cavities; mediastinum
The mediastinum contains the ____, which encloses the heart, and is also surrounds the remaining thoracic organs.
Pericardial Cavity
The thoracic cavity is separated from the more inferior ___ by the diaphragm, a domeshaped muscle important in breathing.
Abdominopelvic Cavity
The superior portion of the abdominopelvic cavity contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs.
Abdominal Cavity
The inferior part of the abdominopelvic cavity lies in the bony pelvis and contains the urinary bladder, some reproductive organs, and the rectum.
Pelvic Cavity
A ___ occurs when part of the stomach slides through the diaphragm into the thoracic cavity, allowing stomach acid to cause heartburn (which is actually irritation of the esophagus, not the heart).
hiatal hernia
The walls of the ventral body cavity and the outer surfaces of the organs it contains are covered by a thin, double layered membrane, the ___
serosa or serous membrane
The part of the membrane lining the cavity walls is called the
Parietal serosa
covering the organs in the cavity.
Visceral serosa
In the body, the serous membranes are separated not by air but by a thin layer of lubricating fluid, called ___ which is secreted by both membranes.
serous fluid
Although there is a potential space between the two membranes, the barely present, slitlike ___ is filled with serous fluid.
serous cavity
___lines the pericardial cavity and folds back as the ____, which covers the heart
parietal pericardium; visceral pericardium
___line the walls of the thoracic cavity, and the ___ cover the lungs
parietal pleura; visceral pleura
___is associated with the walls of the abdominopelvic cavity, while the ___ covers most of the organs within that cavity.
parietal peritoneum; visceral peritoneum
inflammation of the pleurae
Pleurisy
inflammation of the peritoneums
Peritonitis
One of the nine regions, is the centermost region deep to and surrounding the umbilicus (navel)
Umbilical region
One of the nine regions, is located superior to the umbilical region
Epigastric region
One of the nine regions, is located inferior to the umbilical region
Pubic (Hypogastric) region
Part of the nine regions that are located lateral to the hypogastric region
Right and Left inguinal or iliac regions
Part of the nine regions that lie lateral to the umbilical region
Right and Left lateral (lumbar) regions
Part of the nine regions that lie lateral to the epigastric region and deep to the ribs
Right and Left hypochondriac regions
What are the 4 quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity?
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper quadrant (LUQ), right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left lower quadrant (LLQ).
contains the teeth and tongue. This cavity is part of and continuous with the cavity of the digestive organs, which opens to the body exterior at the anus.
Oral and digestive cavity
Located within and posterior to the nose, the ___ is part of the respiratory system passageways.
Nasal Cavity
house the eyes and present them in an anterior position
Orbital Cavities
lie just medial to the eardrums. These cavities contain tiny bones that transmit sound vibrations to the hearing receptors in the inner ears.
Middle ear cavities
are joint cavities. They are enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround freely movable joints of the body (such as the elbow and knee joints).
Synovial Cavities
The correct sequence of levels forming the structural hierarchy is:
(a) organ, organ system, cellular, chemical, tissue, organismal
(b) chemical, cellular, tissue, organismal, organ, organ system
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
(d) organismal, organ system, organ, tissue, cellular, chemical
(c) chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
The structural and functional unit of life is (a) a cell, (b) an organ, (c) the organism, (d) a molecule.
(a) a cell
Which of the following is a major functional characteristic of all organisms? (a) movement, (b) growth, (c) metabolism, (d) responsiveness, (e) all of these.
(e) all of these
An increased rate of breathing as a result of an increased buildup of carbon dioxide in the bloodstream would be best described as an example of which of the following? (a) maintaining boundaries, (b) excretion of metabolic waste, (c) responsiveness, (d) metabolism.
b) excretion of metabolic waste
In (a)–(e), a directional term [e.g., distal in (a)] is followed by terms indicating different body structures or locations (e.g., the elbow/the wrist). In each case, choose the structure or organ that matches the given directional term.
(a) distal: the elbow/the wrist
(b) lateral: the hip bone/the umbilicus
(c) superior: the nose/the chin
(d) anterior: the toes/the heel
(e) superficial: the scalp/the skull
(a) wrist, (b) hip bone, (c) nose, (d) toes, (e) scalp
The diaphragm separates the thoracic cavity from the (a) abdominopelvic cavity, (b) dorsal cavity, (c) ventral cavity.
(a) abdominopelvic cavity
Terms that apply to the backside of the body in the anatomical position include:
(a) ventral; anterior
(b) back; rear
(c) posterior; dorsal
(d) medial; lateral
(c) posterior; dorsal
According to the principle of complementarity, how does anatomy relate to physiology?
Function (physiology) reflects structure (anatomy); structure will determine and/or influence function.
List and describe briefly five external factors that must be present or provided to sustain life.
Five survival factors are: (1) nutrients—the chemical substances used for energy and cell building; (2) oxygen—used in the reactions that produce cellular energy; (3) water—the liquid environment necessary for all chemical reactions (4) body temperature— to maintain the proper temperature for chemical reactions to proceed; and (5) atmospheric pressure—to allow gas exchange to occur.
Define homeostasis.
Homeostasis is the ability to maintain internal conditions within a narrow set of limits, even in the face of continuous change in the outside world.
Why is anatomical terminology necessary?
Anatomical terms are precise words that have limited usage, which prevents confusion when describing the location of body parts.
Which body region is referred to when each of the following anatomical terms is used? (a) tarsal, (b) occipital, (c) sural, (d) mental, (e) coxal.
(a) ankle, (b) back of head, (c) calf, (d) chin, (e)hip.
