knowledge and problem solving Flashcards
learning
acquisition of skill or knowledge
knowledge
possession of information or ability to locate it
memory
part of learning
ability to retain knowledge
conceptual knowledge
enables us to recognise objects and events
and to make inferences about their properties
concept
mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions
categorisation
process by which things are placed into groups called categories
categories are all possible examples of a particular concept
what makes a category?
not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features
instead of relying on strict definition criteria
items resemble one another in many ways
- family resemblance
why are categories useful?
knowing something is in a category provides lots of information about an item
help to understand individual cases not previously encountered
allow us to identify special characteristics of a particular item
prototype approach
prototype = average representation of the typical member in a category
characteristics features that describe what members of that concept are like
strong positive relationship with family resemblance
items in category with large overlap have high resemblance
fast and efficient
facilitates categorisation
easily deals with variable categories
high vs low prototypically
high
category member closely resembles the category prototype
low
member does not closely resemble prototype
typicality effect
prototypical objects are:
processed preferentially
processed more rapidly
named more rapidly
more affected by priming
exemplar approach
a concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype)
examples are actual category members not abstract averages
to categories, we compare new item to stored examples
explains typicality effect
takes into account atypical cases
easily deals with variable categories
prototype vs exemplar
both represent a category rather than define it
representation is not abstract in exemplar
family resemblance effect
more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorised
which approach is used in reality?
use both simultaneously and alternating
exemplar works best for small categories
prototype best for larger categories
hierarchal organisation of categories
basic level is psychologically privileged
going above basic level = large loss of information
eg furniture vs table
going below basic level = little gain of information
eg type of table still a table
semantic networks
concepts arranged in networks
represent the way concepts are organised in the mind - represents how we save information
represents cognitive economy
cognitive economy
shared properties are only stored at higher-level nodes
every features shared by categories doesn’t have to be stored for every member
eg can swim not stored for every fish
exceptions are stored at lower nodes
semantic dementia
progressive neurological disorder
lose specific knowledge first and loss follow hierarchy from specific to general
gradual disintegration of concepts and categories
follows opposite to children acquiring knowledge
cortical atrophy in semantic dementia
selectively affects temporal lobes
leads to progressive loss of:
- word memory (mental lexicon)
- semantic categories (knowledge/recognition)
schemas, concepts and categories lost first
spreading activation
when we use concepts, they are activated
information related to concepts can spread faster and more readily than less related concepts
connected information more easily recalled then not related
known as priming
activation
level of arousal of a node
when activated, activity spreads out along all connected links
concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory
criticisms of spreading activation model
cannot explain typicality effects
has hierarchy but can’t explain why some words are more important within a category
cognitive economy
some studies go against model
connectionist approach developed as a better model
connectionist approach
originated in creating computer models for representing cognitive processing
uses parallel distributed processing
- processing multiple things at the same time
approach assumes knowledge is not represented in a single node
- but instead represented in the distributed activity of many nodes
how is knowledge activated in connectionist approach?
can be activated by external stimuli and signals from other units in knowledge system
- activated externally or internally
weighting of categories determines at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate next unit
a connectionist network
activation of an item unit and a relation unit causes activity to travel through the network
eventually results in activation of the property unit associated
concept not represented by node by pattern of activity in network
many features represented across networks
multiple nodes represent those features
advantages of connectionist approach
similar to human learning process
- can explain how learning occurs
- an generalisation of learning
explains changing in knowledge structure over time
performance distribution occurs gradually as parts of system damaged
- lost slowly like in semantic dementia
very similar to brain so can model cognitive functions
semantic categories in the brain
different brain areas are specialised to process information about different categories
category specific memory circuits
domain specificity
double dissociation for categories
when save information about feeling, knowledge stored in sensory cortex for that body part
eg rough stored in hands
embodied approach
idea that learning and conceptualisation is based on experience
why our brain saves knowledge of concepts
knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with an object
mirror neurons
fire when doing and when observing same action
semantic somatotopy
correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation
eg kick activates kicking leg
problem
obstacle between present state and a goal
not immediately obvious how to solve
same problem can be represented differently in the mind
reconstructing
changing the problems representation
often leads to new solutions
speed of problem solving
suddenly or progressively
insight problems = suddenly
eg riddles, sudden solution
non-insight problems = gradually
eg maths, multiple steps involved
obstacles to problem solving
fixation
tendency to focus on one specific characteristic of the problem
functional fixedness
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions rather than using it in another way to solve the problem
mental set
preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
based on a persons experiences with a similar problem
role of experience in problem solving
can make you an expert
can also hinder
- can form rigid mental sets and thinking patterns
information processing approach
a way to think about problem solving
Newell and Simons logic theorist approach
Newell and Simon - logic theorist
tower of Hanoi problem
helps us specify pathways from initial to goal state
initial state - conditions at beginning of a problem
intermediate - conditions after each step is made towards solution
goal state - solution to the problem
means-end analysis - a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between initial and goal states
sub goals - small goals that help create intermediate states closer to goal
means end analysis
a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states
analogical problem solving
when using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem
analogical transfer
transfer from one problem to another
using analogies to solve problems
analogies aid problem solving
but often struggle to notice them
hints needed to notice connections
rigid situational thinking gets in the way
analogical encoding
process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them determined
comparing cases is believed to promote both recall and transfer
analogical paradox
can be difficult to apply analogies in the lab
but people routinely use them in real world setting
how experts solve problems
expert - someone who is extremely knowledgable in field
solve problems in field more quickly and with higher success rate
- posses more knowledge
- organised to can be accessed more easily
- can use schemas
novices usually focus on surface features
- harder to see analogies and understand structures
experts can focus on structural features
- not as distracted by surface features
- easier to understand and find analogies
but experts no better outside of their field
often less open to new ideas so struggle to solve new problems
what is creativity?
innovative thinking
novel ideas
new connections between existing ideas
divergent thinking
open-ended, large number of potential solutions in relation to a problem
a creative solution also has to be useful
generating ideas
brainstorming
creative cognition
brainstorming
individually, many idea per person
in a group = significantly less ideas per person
influence each other and creates pressure to perform
creative cognition
technique to train people to think creatively by focusing on creation rather than use
pre-inventive forms - ideas that precede creation of finished creative product
how to aid creativity
affected by mood
good mood = more ideas
healthy habits
eg exercise and activity
how is creativity tested?
Guilford’s alternate uses test
people get object present associated with a certain use
task to come up with as many possible uses in a given time
creativity and mental illness
stereotype that creative people more prone to mental illness eg bipolar or schizophrenia
not supported by data
but relatives of people with these disorders much more likely to be create than average person
- generic trait linked to both
- called latent inhibition
latent inhibition
capacity to screen out stimuli that aren’t considered relevant
critical to filter information protecting us from getting overwhelmed
filter impaired for some mental illnesses eg ADHD
- overwhelmed and overstimulated easily
latent inhibition and creativity
reduced in highly creative individuals with high IQ
means more open to experiences
perceive more of the environment as less filtered out
= more creative
savant syndrome
savant skills may be present in any person
not usually accessible to conscious awareness
lack of inhibition unlocks savant skills
- linked to damage in anterior temporal lobe
deactivated lobe causes people to think outside of the box
easier to problem solves as brains aren’t ad wired to interpret world in certain ways based on experiences
