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cognitive psych 🧠 > knowledge and problem solving > Flashcards

knowledge and problem solving Flashcards

1
Q

learning

A

acquisition of skill or knowledge

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2
Q

knowledge

A

possession of information or ability to locate it

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3
Q

memory

A

part of learning
ability to retain knowledge

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4
Q

conceptual knowledge

A

enables us to recognise objects and events
and to make inferences about their properties

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5
Q

concept

A

mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions

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6
Q

categorisation

A

process by which things are placed into groups called categories

categories are all possible examples of a particular concept

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7
Q

what makes a category?

A

not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features

instead of relying on strict definition criteria
items resemble one another in many ways
- family resemblance

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8
Q

why are categories useful?

A

knowing something is in a category provides lots of information about an item

help to understand individual cases not previously encountered

allow us to identify special characteristics of a particular item

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9
Q

prototype approach

A

prototype = average representation of the typical member in a category

characteristics features that describe what members of that concept are like

strong positive relationship with family resemblance
items in category with large overlap have high resemblance

fast and efficient
facilitates categorisation
easily deals with variable categories

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10
Q

high vs low prototypically

A

high
category member closely resembles the category prototype

low
member does not closely resemble prototype

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11
Q

typicality effect

A

prototypical objects are:

processed preferentially
processed more rapidly
named more rapidly
more affected by priming

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12
Q

exemplar approach

A

a concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype)

examples are actual category members not abstract averages

to categories, we compare new item to stored examples

explains typicality effect
takes into account atypical cases
easily deals with variable categories

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13
Q

prototype vs exemplar

A

both represent a category rather than define it

representation is not abstract in exemplar

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14
Q

family resemblance effect

A

more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorised

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15
Q

which approach is used in reality?

A

use both simultaneously and alternating

exemplar works best for small categories

prototype best for larger categories

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16
Q

hierarchal organisation of categories

A

basic level is psychologically privileged

going above basic level = large loss of information
eg furniture vs table

going below basic level = little gain of information
eg type of table still a table

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17
Q

semantic networks

A

concepts arranged in networks
represent the way concepts are organised in the mind - represents how we save information

represents cognitive economy

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18
Q

cognitive economy

A

shared properties are only stored at higher-level nodes

every features shared by categories doesn’t have to be stored for every member
eg can swim not stored for every fish

exceptions are stored at lower nodes

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19
Q

semantic dementia

A

progressive neurological disorder
lose specific knowledge first and loss follow hierarchy from specific to general

gradual disintegration of concepts and categories
follows opposite to children acquiring knowledge

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20
Q

cortical atrophy in semantic dementia

A

selectively affects temporal lobes
leads to progressive loss of:
- word memory (mental lexicon)
- semantic categories (knowledge/recognition)

schemas, concepts and categories lost first

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21
Q

spreading activation

A

when we use concepts, they are activated

information related to concepts can spread faster and more readily than less related concepts

connected information more easily recalled then not related
known as priming

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22
Q

activation

A

level of arousal of a node

when activated, activity spreads out along all connected links
concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory

23
Q

criticisms of spreading activation model

A

cannot explain typicality effects
has hierarchy but can’t explain why some words are more important within a category

cognitive economy
some studies go against model

connectionist approach developed as a better model

24
Q

connectionist approach

A

originated in creating computer models for representing cognitive processing

uses parallel distributed processing
- processing multiple things at the same time

approach assumes knowledge is not represented in a single node
- but instead represented in the distributed activity of many nodes

25
Q

how is knowledge activated in connectionist approach?

A

can be activated by external stimuli and signals from other units in knowledge system
- activated externally or internally

weighting of categories determines at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate next unit

26
Q

a connectionist network

A

activation of an item unit and a relation unit causes activity to travel through the network
eventually results in activation of the property unit associated

concept not represented by node by pattern of activity in network

many features represented across networks
multiple nodes represent those features

27
Q

advantages of connectionist approach

A

similar to human learning process
- can explain how learning occurs
- an generalisation of learning

explains changing in knowledge structure over time

performance distribution occurs gradually as parts of system damaged
- lost slowly like in semantic dementia

very similar to brain so can model cognitive functions

28
Q

semantic categories in the brain

A

different brain areas are specialised to process information about different categories

category specific memory circuits
domain specificity
double dissociation for categories

when save information about feeling, knowledge stored in sensory cortex for that body part
eg rough stored in hands

29
Q

embodied approach

A

idea that learning and conceptualisation is based on experience
why our brain saves knowledge of concepts

knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with an object

mirror neurons
fire when doing and when observing same action

semantic somatotopy
correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation
eg kick activates kicking leg

30
Q

problem

A

obstacle between present state and a goal

not immediately obvious how to solve
same problem can be represented differently in the mind

31
Q

reconstructing

A

changing the problems representation
often leads to new solutions

32
Q

speed of problem solving

A

suddenly or progressively

insight problems = suddenly
eg riddles, sudden solution

non-insight problems = gradually
eg maths, multiple steps involved

33
Q

obstacles to problem solving

A

fixation
tendency to focus on one specific characteristic of the problem

functional fixedness
restricting use of an object to its familiar functions rather than using it in another way to solve the problem

mental set
preconceived notion about how to approach a problem
based on a persons experiences with a similar problem

34
Q

role of experience in problem solving

A

can make you an expert

can also hinder
- can form rigid mental sets and thinking patterns

35
Q

information processing approach

A

a way to think about problem solving

Newell and Simons logic theorist approach

36
Q

Newell and Simon - logic theorist

A

tower of Hanoi problem
helps us specify pathways from initial to goal state

initial state - conditions at beginning of a problem

intermediate - conditions after each step is made towards solution

goal state - solution to the problem

means-end analysis - a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between initial and goal states

sub goals - small goals that help create intermediate states closer to goal

37
Q

means end analysis

A

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

38
Q

analogical problem solving

A

when using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem

analogical transfer
transfer from one problem to another

39
Q

using analogies to solve problems

A

analogies aid problem solving
but often struggle to notice them

hints needed to notice connections

rigid situational thinking gets in the way

40
Q

analogical encoding

A

process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them determined

comparing cases is believed to promote both recall and transfer

41
Q

analogical paradox

A

can be difficult to apply analogies in the lab
but people routinely use them in real world setting

42
Q

how experts solve problems

A

expert - someone who is extremely knowledgable in field

solve problems in field more quickly and with higher success rate
- posses more knowledge
- organised to can be accessed more easily
- can use schemas

novices usually focus on surface features
- harder to see analogies and understand structures

experts can focus on structural features
- not as distracted by surface features
- easier to understand and find analogies

but experts no better outside of their field
often less open to new ideas so struggle to solve new problems

43
Q

what is creativity?

A

innovative thinking
novel ideas
new connections between existing ideas

44
Q

divergent thinking

A

open-ended, large number of potential solutions in relation to a problem

a creative solution also has to be useful

45
Q

generating ideas

A

brainstorming
creative cognition

46
Q

brainstorming

A

individually, many idea per person

in a group = significantly less ideas per person

influence each other and creates pressure to perform

47
Q

creative cognition

A

technique to train people to think creatively by focusing on creation rather than use

pre-inventive forms - ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

48
Q

how to aid creativity

A

affected by mood
good mood = more ideas

healthy habits
eg exercise and activity

49
Q

how is creativity tested?

A

Guilford’s alternate uses test

people get object present associated with a certain use

task to come up with as many possible uses in a given time

50
Q

creativity and mental illness

A

stereotype that creative people more prone to mental illness eg bipolar or schizophrenia
not supported by data

but relatives of people with these disorders much more likely to be create than average person
- generic trait linked to both
- called latent inhibition

51
Q

latent inhibition

A

capacity to screen out stimuli that aren’t considered relevant

critical to filter information protecting us from getting overwhelmed

filter impaired for some mental illnesses eg ADHD
- overwhelmed and overstimulated easily

52
Q

latent inhibition and creativity

A

reduced in highly creative individuals with high IQ

means more open to experiences
perceive more of the environment as less filtered out
= more creative

53
Q

savant syndrome

A

savant skills may be present in any person
not usually accessible to conscious awareness

lack of inhibition unlocks savant skills
- linked to damage in anterior temporal lobe

deactivated lobe causes people to think outside of the box
easier to problem solves as brains aren’t ad wired to interpret world in certain ways based on experiences

cognitive psych 🧠 (12 decks)

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