knowledge and problem solving

Question 1

learning

Answer 1

acquisition of skill or knowledge

Question 2

knowledge

Answer 2

possession of information or ability to locate it

Question 3

memory

Answer 3

part of learning
ability to retain knowledge

Question 4

conceptual knowledge

Answer 4

enables us to recognise objects and events
and to make inferences about their properties

Question 5

concept

Answer 5

mental representation used for a variety of cognitive functions

Question 6

categorisation

Answer 6

process by which things are placed into groups called categories

categories are all possible examples of a particular concept

Question 7

what makes a category?

Answer 7

not all members of everyday categories have the same defining features

instead of relying on strict definition criteria
items resemble one another in many ways
- family resemblance

Question 8

why are categories useful?

Answer 8

knowing something is in a category provides lots of information about an item

help to understand individual cases not previously encountered

allow us to identify special characteristics of a particular item

Question 9

prototype approach

Answer 9

prototype = average representation of the typical member in a category

characteristics features that describe what members of that concept are like

strong positive relationship with family resemblance
items in category with large overlap have high resemblance

fast and efficient
facilitates categorisation
easily deals with variable categories

Question 10

high vs low prototypically

Answer 10

high
category member closely resembles the category prototype

low
member does not closely resemble prototype

Question 11

typicality effect

Answer 11

prototypical objects are:

processed preferentially
processed more rapidly
named more rapidly
more affected by priming

Question 12

exemplar approach

Answer 12

a concept is represented by multiple examples (rather than a single prototype)

examples are actual category members not abstract averages

to categories, we compare new item to stored examples

explains typicality effect
takes into account atypical cases
easily deals with variable categories

Question 13

prototype vs exemplar

Answer 13

both represent a category rather than define it

representation is not abstract in exemplar

Question 14

family resemblance effect

Answer 14

more similar a specific exemplar is to a known category member, the faster it will be categorised

Question 15

which approach is used in reality?

Answer 15

use both simultaneously and alternating

exemplar works best for small categories

prototype best for larger categories

Question 16

hierarchal organisation of categories

Answer 16

basic level is psychologically privileged

going above basic level = large loss of information
eg furniture vs table

going below basic level = little gain of information
eg type of table still a table

Question 17

semantic networks

Answer 17

concepts arranged in networks
represent the way concepts are organised in the mind - represents how we save information

represents cognitive economy

Question 18

cognitive economy

Answer 18

shared properties are only stored at higher-level nodes

every features shared by categories doesn’t have to be stored for every member
eg can swim not stored for every fish

exceptions are stored at lower nodes

Question 19

semantic dementia

Answer 19

progressive neurological disorder
lose specific knowledge first and loss follow hierarchy from specific to general

gradual disintegration of concepts and categories
follows opposite to children acquiring knowledge

Question 20

cortical atrophy in semantic dementia

Answer 20

selectively affects temporal lobes
leads to progressive loss of:
- word memory (mental lexicon)
- semantic categories (knowledge/recognition)

schemas, concepts and categories lost first

Question 21

spreading activation

Answer 21

when we use concepts, they are activated

information related to concepts can spread faster and more readily than less related concepts

connected information more easily recalled then not related
known as priming

Question 22

activation

Answer 22

level of arousal of a node

when activated, activity spreads out along all connected links
concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory

Question 23

criticisms of spreading activation model

Answer 23

cannot explain typicality effects
has hierarchy but can’t explain why some words are more important within a category

cognitive economy
some studies go against model

connectionist approach developed as a better model

Question 24

connectionist approach

Answer 24

originated in creating computer models for representing cognitive processing

uses parallel distributed processing
- processing multiple things at the same time

approach assumes knowledge is not represented in a single node
- but instead represented in the distributed activity of many nodes

Question 25

how is knowledge activated in connectionist approach?

Answer 25

can be activated by external stimuli and signals from other units in knowledge system - activated externally or internally weighting of categories determines at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate next unit

Question 26

a connectionist network

Answer 26

activation of an item unit and a relation unit causes activity to travel through the network eventually results in activation of the property unit associated concept not represented by node by pattern of activity in network many features represented across networks multiple nodes represent those features

Question 27

advantages of connectionist approach

Answer 27

similar to human learning process - can explain how learning occurs - an generalisation of learning explains changing in knowledge structure over time performance distribution occurs gradually as parts of system damaged - lost slowly like in semantic dementia very similar to brain so can model cognitive functions

Question 28

semantic categories in the brain

Answer 28

different brain areas are specialised to process information about different categories category specific memory circuits domain specificity double dissociation for categories when save information about feeling, knowledge stored in sensory cortex for that body part eg rough stored in hands

Question 29

embodied approach

Answer 29

idea that learning and conceptualisation is based on experience why our brain saves knowledge of concepts knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with an object mirror neurons fire when doing and when observing same action semantic somatotopy correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation eg kick activates kicking leg

Question 30

problem

Answer 30

obstacle between present state and a goal not immediately obvious how to solve same problem can be represented differently in the mind

Question 31

reconstructing

Answer 31

changing the problems representation often leads to new solutions

Question 32

speed of problem solving

Answer 32

suddenly or progressively insight problems = suddenly eg riddles, sudden solution non-insight problems = gradually eg maths, multiple steps involved

Question 33

obstacles to problem solving

Answer 33

fixation tendency to focus on one specific characteristic of the problem functional fixedness restricting use of an object to its familiar functions rather than using it in another way to solve the problem mental set preconceived notion about how to approach a problem based on a persons experiences with a similar problem

Question 34

role of experience in problem solving

Answer 34

can make you an expert can also hinder - can form rigid mental sets and thinking patterns

Question 35

information processing approach

Answer 35

a way to think about problem solving Newell and Simons logic theorist approach

Question 36

Newell and Simon - logic theorist

Answer 36

tower of Hanoi problem helps us specify pathways from initial to goal state initial state - conditions at beginning of a problem intermediate - conditions after each step is made towards solution goal state - solution to the problem means-end analysis - a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between initial and goal states sub goals - small goals that help create intermediate states closer to goal

Question 37

means end analysis

Answer 37

a way of solving a problem in which the goal is to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states

Question 38

analogical problem solving

Answer 38

when using a solution to a similar problem guides solution to a new problem analogical transfer transfer from one problem to another

Question 39

using analogies to solve problems

Answer 39

analogies aid problem solving but often struggle to notice them hints needed to notice connections rigid situational thinking gets in the way

Question 40

analogical encoding

Answer 40

process by which two problems are compared and similarities between them determined comparing cases is believed to promote both recall and transfer

Question 41

analogical paradox

Answer 41

can be difficult to apply analogies in the lab but people routinely use them in real world setting

Question 42

how experts solve problems

Answer 42

expert - someone who is extremely knowledgable in field solve problems in field more quickly and with higher success rate - posses more knowledge - organised to can be accessed more easily - can use schemas novices usually focus on surface features - harder to see analogies and understand structures experts can focus on structural features - not as distracted by surface features - easier to understand and find analogies but experts no better outside of their field often less open to new ideas so struggle to solve new problems

Question 43

what is creativity?

Answer 43

innovative thinking novel ideas new connections between existing ideas

Question 44

divergent thinking

Answer 44

open-ended, large number of potential solutions in relation to a problem a creative solution also has to be useful

Question 45

generating ideas

Answer 45

brainstorming creative cognition

Question 46

brainstorming

Answer 46

individually, many idea per person in a group = significantly less ideas per person influence each other and creates pressure to perform

Question 47

creative cognition

Answer 47

technique to train people to think creatively by focusing on creation rather than use pre-inventive forms - ideas that precede creation of finished creative product

Question 48

how to aid creativity

Answer 48

affected by mood good mood = more ideas healthy habits eg exercise and activity

Question 49

how is creativity tested?

Answer 49

Guilford's alternate uses test people get object present associated with a certain use task to come up with as many possible uses in a given time

Question 50

creativity and mental illness

Answer 50

stereotype that creative people more prone to mental illness eg bipolar or schizophrenia not supported by data but relatives of people with these disorders much more likely to be create than average person - generic trait linked to both - called latent inhibition

Question 51

latent inhibition

Answer 51

capacity to screen out stimuli that aren't considered relevant critical to filter information protecting us from getting overwhelmed filter impaired for some mental illnesses eg ADHD - overwhelmed and overstimulated easily

Question 52

latent inhibition and creativity

Answer 52

reduced in highly creative individuals with high IQ means more open to experiences perceive more of the environment as less filtered out = more creative

Question 53

savant syndrome

Answer 53

savant skills may be present in any person not usually accessible to conscious awareness lack of inhibition unlocks savant skills - linked to damage in anterior temporal lobe deactivated lobe causes people to think outside of the box easier to problem solves as brains aren't ad wired to interpret world in certain ways based on experiences