KEY WORDS

Question 1

Interpretive method

Answer 1

A method in which qualitative data are not taken at face value, but which uses techniques for understanding what might have been meant while taking the specific context and subjective intentions into account.

Question 2

Representation

Answer 2

Data that are not necessarily objective facts but are at best representations or expressions of factual situations.

Question 3

Naturalistic approach

Answer 3

An approach that studies things in their natural settings and contexts.

Question 4

Natural setting

Answer 4

The specific historical and geographical context/situation which people try to interpret and make sense of.

Question 5

Context

Answer 5

The specific historical and geographical context/situation which people try to interpret and make sense of.

Question 6

Subjectivity

Answer 6

The way individual personal judgment is shaped by personal opinions and feelings, as well as meanings allocated to the situation by the person being confronted.

Question 7

Subjectivity of Researcher

Answer 7

The way individual researcher’s interpretations are shaped by personal positionings, ideologies, interpretative/theoretical frameworks, opinions and feelings.

Question 8

The subjectivity of Participants researched

Answer 8

The way the participants subjectively interpret their situation and how their actions are led by these interpretations.

Question 9

Meaning

Answer 9

The subjective significance allocated by a person to a situation, or the sense this situation subjectively imparts to that person.

Question 10

Meaning

Answer 10

The subjective significance allocated by a person to a situation, or the sense this situation subjectively imparts to that person.

Question 11

Induction

Answer 11

Making an inference or drawing general conclusions based on empirical observations in a particular situation.

Question 12

Deduction

Answer 12

Deriving a hypothesis by means of logical reasoning based on preset general theoretical insights.

Question 13

Exploratory

Answer 13

Methodological approach attempting to discover the hitherto unknown, and thus to contribute to theory building.

Question 14

Confirmatory

Answer 14

Methodological approach attempting to find confirmation of theoretically derived hypotheses.

Question 15

Explanation

Answer 15

Explaining phenomena by referring to the necessary and sufficient causal relationships between causes and effects

Question 16

Understanding

Answer 16

Understanding phenomena by referring to the subjective reasons people have for their actions or the subjective sense people make of their actions.

Question 17

Research Design

Answer 17

Important decisions the researcher needs to make about the way the researcher wants to answer the research questions, such as:
• general setting, like the temporal and spatial setting
• which general methods would help to find answers
• how to collect data (including sampling methods)
• what methods to use to analyse data
• ethical issues
• how to report results

Question 18

Research Method

Answer 18

The technical procedures governing how to apply a specific method.

Question 19

Validity

Answer 19

The way the analysis results represent what they are supposed to represent in the current situation, and how far they can be generally applied to other situations.

Question 20

Reliability

Answer 20

The way in which the results of the analysis can be reproduced, and are robust for disturbing influences.

Question 21

Credibility

Answer 21

The confidence in the ‘truth’ of the findings.

Question 22

Transferability

Answer 22

The way the findings have applicability in other contexts.

Question 23

Dependability

Answer 23

The way the findings are consistent and could be repeated.

Question 24

Confirmability

Answer 24

The degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher bias, motivation, or interest.

Question 25

Research Design

Answer 25

The overall research strategy to find the answers to your research questions. It constitutes the blueprint for the collection of data and the analysis of data.

Question 26

Societal Problem

Answer 26

Science wants to contribute to a better world, and therefore wants to help solve certain problems. So every research project starts with identifying a practical problem we need to cope with, in society and to which solution science aims to contribute.

Question 27

Societal Relevance

Answer 27

The way research can contribute to the solution to a societal problem. Note that science usually can not solve to the problem as a whole, but at best can only modestly help to make a small step towards a solution.

Question 28

Knowledge Problem

Answer 28

Research produces new knowledge and insights. So the contribution of science to society is always focussed on something we do not know already and which we need to know to solve a certain practical problem. It is therefore important to explore what we already know about the topic of our research and to identify the knowledge gap we are confronted with when we try to solve a practical problem.

Question 29

Scientific Relevance

Answer 29

The scientific relevance of our research is the contribution we can make to filling the knowledge gaps we are confronted with. This can be empirical knowledge (empirical facts), but also conceptual/theoretical knowledge about relevant aspects and their (causal) relationships.

Question 30

Feasibility

Answer 30

As engaged researchers, we are always ambitious and instantly would like to improve the world. The time frame and budgetary and other limitations of our research project, however, often do not allow this. We, therefore, need to be very attentive and modest about what is really feasible within the framework of our research project.

Question 31

Research Objective

Answer 31

The research objective is the feasible goal we believe can be realized within the framework of our research.

Question 32

Research Question

Answer 32

The knowledge problem we are addressing in our research can often be translated into a number of concrete research questions, which we seek to find an answer to in our research.

Question 33

Theoretical/Conceptual Framework

Answer 33

The research questions we formulated, often involve a number of concepts/variables and propositions about the relationships between these concepts/variables. They might be inspired by existing theories and proposed adaptations or enhancements or alternative formulations of these existing theoretical insights. This is usually the basis of a theoretical/conceptual framework exemplifying your first thoughts about how to conceptualise and theorise your research questions.

Question 34

Unit of Analysis

Answer 34

In science, we often cannot produce knowledge which is universally true, and we at best can only say something about a certain situation or a certain case under specific circumstances. The unit or entity we wish to say something about at the end of our study is what we call our unit of analysis. The unit of analysis will be determined by your research question.

Question 35

Unit of Observation

Answer 35

Within the unit of analysis, we often choose a or several unit(s) of observation, which we actually empirically observe and collect data about, to be able to infer conclusions about the (broader) unit of analysis. The unit of observation is determined largely by the method of data collection that you use to answer your research question. In some exceptional cases, the unit of observation might be the same as the unit of analysis, but in most cases, it is not.

Question 36

Research Sample

Answer 36

The method for the selection of the units of observation is your sampling method. A research sample is a group of people, objects, organisations, or situations taken from a larger population or unit of analysis. The sample should be representative of the population to ensure that we can generalise the findings from the research sample to the population as a whole.

Question 37

Method of Data Collection

Answer 37

Because of the situational or contextual openness of qualitative research methods, the method for collecting qualitative data is often seen as crucial. In our research design, we need to underpin our specific method of data collection. However, in contrast to some common research practices in qualitative research, this is certainly not sufficient! We also need to underpin our method of analysis of qualitative data.

Question 38

Method of Data Analysis

Answer 38

In qualitative research it is sometimes forgotten, that one can analyse qualitative data in many different ways, as we also learn in this course. In our research design, we, therefore, need to be explicit about what method of analysis we are using and need to underpin, why this method is suitable for finding the answers to our research questions.

Question 39

Time Schedule

Answer 39

Collecting qualitative data and analyzing qualitative data is not an easy task, and is certainly much more than a common conversation with participants and everyday interpretations. Scientific research in the field of qualitative research is a tedious and time-consuming job, which demand thorough and realistic time planning. A time schedule is, therefore, an important element in your research design.

Question 40

Research Ethics

Answer 40

Research should be directed to helping to solve societal problems, and therefore is an ethically responsible job. In doing so, it should also avoid causing harm, distress, anxiety, pain or any other negative feelings to participants and participating organisations. This does not imply that in the conclusions of your research you cannot criticise the behaviour of participants or participating organisations, but it needs to be constructive.

Question 41

Honesty

Answer 41

Honesty means, among other things, reporting the research process accurately, taking alternative opinions and counterarguments seriously, being open about margins of uncertainty, refraining from making unfounded claims, refraining from fabricating or falsifying data or sources and refraining from presenting results more favourably or unfavourably than they actually are.

Question 42

Responsibility

Answer 42

Responsibility means, among other things, acknowledging the fact that a researcher does not operate in isolation and hence taking into consideration – within reasonable limits – the legitimate interests of human and animal test subjects, as well as those of commissioning parties, funding bodies and the environment. Responsibility also means conducting research that is scientifically and/or societally relevant.

Question 43

Scrupulousness

Answer 43

Scrupulousness means, among other things, using methods that are scientific or scholarly and exercising the best possible care in designing, undertaking, reporting and disseminating research.

Question 44

Independence

Answer 44

Independence means, among other things, not allowing the choice of method, the assessment of data, the weight attributed to alternative statements or the assessment of others’ research or research proposals to be guided by non-scientific or non-scholarly considerations (e.g., those of a commercial or political nature). In this sense, independence also includes impartiality. Independence is required at all times in the design, conduct and reporting of research, although not necessarily in the choice of research topic and research question.

Question 45

Transparency

Answer 45

Transparency means, among other things, ensuring that it is clear to others what data the research was based on, how the data were obtained, what and how results were achieved and what role was played by external stakeholders. If parts of the research or data are not to be made public, the researcher must provide a good account of why this is not possible. It must be evident, at least to peers, how the research was conducted and what the various phases of the research process were. At the very least, this means that the line of reasoning must be clear and that the steps in the research process must be verifiable.

Question 46

Ethics Creep

Answer 46

The attempt to govern and regulate social scientific research in the name of ethics, although substantial and situational ethical judgement might diverge from these top-down ethical (governance) claims.

Question 47

Informed Consent

Answer 47

The procedure for informing the participant about the objectives of your research and about the way you will process and publish the information one gains from the participants, and for getting permission for it from the participant, beforehand or in hindsight.

Question 48

Community Informed Consent

Answer 48

In qualitative research, we do not only deal with individual participants, but also with participating communities or organisations. So it might be important, to also get joint informed consent from that community or group of people.

Question 49

Individual Informed Consent

Answer 49

As far as possible it is important to get informed consent from each individual participant.

Question 50

Analyzability

Answer 50

Completeness and accuracy of analysis and interpretation.

Question 51

Transparency

Answer 51

Completeness and full disclosure of all aspects of research.

Question 52

Usefulness

Answer 52

Ability to do something of value with the outcomes.

Question 53

Explanatory Sequential Mixed Methods Design

Answer 53

A mixed-methods design in which one used qualitative research as method following quantitative research to exemplify and explain the results found in the quantitative research.

Question 54

Exploratory Sequential Mixed Methods Design

Answer 54

A mixed-methods design in which qualitative research is first used to explore the conceptual field before one does a more targeted quantitative analysis of these concepts or dimensions.

Question 55

Convergent Mixed Methods Design

Answer 55

A mixed-method design, in which parallelly conducted qualitative and quantitative research provide enhancing insights into a specific topic.

Question 56

Population

Answer 56

The total population of cases one wants to draw conclusions on.

Question 57

Case

Answer 57

A specific case out of the total population of cases one wants to empirically investigate to base and infer the conclusions of the research on.

Question 58

Observation

Answer 58

The degree of neutrality or the extent to which the findings of a study are shaped by the respondents and not by researcher bias, motivation, or interest.

Question 59

Variables

Answer 59

The attributes or dimensions or variables of a specific observational unit which are assessed in your empirical research.

Question 60

Cross Case Study

Answer 60

A study in which several cases, often a larger number of cases, are investigated, and compared with each other.

Question 61

Case Study

Answer 61

A study in which one or a very small number of cases are investigated.

Question 62

External Validity

Answer 62

External validity refers to how well the outcome of a study can be expected to apply to other settings. In other words, this type of validity refers to how generalizable the findings are.

Question 63

Internal Validity

Answer 63

Internal validity is the extent to which a study establishes a trustworthy cause-and-effect relationship between a treatment and an outcome. In short, you can only be confident that your study is internally valid if you can rule out alternative explanations for your findings.

Question 64

Interview

Answer 64

The collection of data by asking people questions and following up or probing their answers

Question 65

Structured Interview

Answer 65

Interview in which structure of the interview as well as all questions and their wordings are predetermined, and in which the participant hardly has any influence on the development of the interview

Question 66

Semi-structured Interview

Answer 66

Interview in which main topics are predetermined, but order in which topics are addressed and the wording of questions are left open, to suit the situation and the way the interview develops. Also, new (sub)topics may pop up. To each of the topics, the interviewer also formulates probing questions that link up to the answers the participant gave before. In semi-structured interviews, the participant has a substantial influence on the course of the interview

Question 67

Focus Group Interview

Answer 67

A group discussion (with 5-12 participants) moderated by the interviewer about a specific topic, with the purpose of collecting data on the dynamics of the interactions between the participants

Question 68

Expert Interview

Answer 68

An interview in which there is a strong imbalance between interviewer and participant with respect to knowledge of the topic at stake. It may become challenging to judge in real-time the answers given and to follow up with the right probing questions. The interviewer can easily be overwhelmed or misled, or become a part of the PR strategy of the expert participant

Question 69

Narrative Interview

Answer 69

Interview type often used in research on oral history, where except for an initial invitation to tell their story and some further animations to continue, the interviewer leaves the initiative for how to tell their story fully to the participant.

Question 70

Phenomenological Interview

Answer 70

Interview type which specifically focusses on getting information on experiences, and the structure of these experiences

Question 71

Questionnaire

Answer 71

In an interview, we are asking people questions. If it is a structured interview, we can use a list of written-out questions, which we then orally pose to the participant and jot down their answers ourselves. An alternative would be to use a written questionnaire which we then ask the respondent to fill out. Increasingly we provide questionnaires online and ask respondents to fill them out online.

Question 72

Survey

Answer 72

A ‘survey’ is a term which in everyday talk is used interchangeable with ‘questionnaire’ but actually has a broader meaning. A survey is the process of setting up a standardised set of questions, distributing it among respondents, the collection, aggregation and analysis of the responses. So a questionnaire is actually only a part of doing a survey.

Question 73

Ethnographic Interview

Answer 73

Interview focussing on the culture of a community and on the specific ways people live their everyday life in that community. Since it addresses the shared culture of that community, it is not so much interested in the individual opinions and actions, but in the inter-actions and shared culture within the community.

Question 74

Photo-elicitation Interview

Answer 74

An interview, which next to the interview questions, also uses visual material like photos, as stimuli for the participant to discuss certain topics

Question 75

Introductory Questions

Answer 75

In an interview, you usually start with a few easy questions to build rapport which then slowly but surely lead to the main topic.

Question 76

Probing Questions

Answer 76

(Semi-structured) interviews are more than simple fact collecting interviews and want to delve deeper into the meaning of things, events, action etc. by posing follow up questions, which invite the participant to elaborate further on the topic, and provide more ‘rich’ and ‘thick’ descriptions.

Question 77

Memo’s

Answer 77

Next to recording the answers given by the interviewee in a formal interview, it may be useful to also write down your observations on the context, on certain things which happened during the interview, or on the information you received informally or ‘off-the-record’ from the participant. Also, your own first impressions after an interview might be worth keeping track of. For this purpose, you use memo’s to write down your observations.

Question 78

Informed Consent

Answer 78

It is an ethical principle in good scientific research to inform your participant of the purpose of your research, and about what will happen with the information they provide, and about the anonymity policy of your research, and to ask the participant for their voluntary consent.

Question 79

Transcription

Answer 79

To analyse interview data, it is important to transcribe the full interview, in sufficient detail, as an original record of what has been said.

Question 80

Street Interview

Answer 80

Interviews conducted by spontaneously addressing people on the street or in public space. These kinds of interviews have their limitations for the length of the interview and for the selection procedure.

Question 81

Telephone Interview

Answer 81

Interviews can also be done by telephone. Specialised commercial call centres can be hired to conduct these interviews.

Question 82

Online Interview

Answer 82

Especially surveys are nowadays often conducted online, allowing a more flexible set up of the questionnaire used, and allowing a larger outreach.

Question 83

Interview Guide

Answer 83

To guide the interviewer through the interview, usually, a written interview guide is used, summarising the topics to be addressed and possible also the questions and probing questions, as well as some formal issues, which may not be forgotten.

Question 84

Rapport

Answer 84

Creating rapport in an interview is creating a relationship of trust and respect between the interviewer and the interviewee.

Question 85

Participant Observation

Answer 85

In participant observation, the researcher enters into the social world of those to be observed and attempts to participate in their activities (Saunders, 2016, p. 358)

Question 86

Structured Observation

Answer 86

Structured observation follows a pre-determined structure, and categorisation of observations

Question 87

Internet-mediated Observation

Answer 87

Collection of (structured) data from online communities

Question 88

Videography

Answer 88

Recording moving images to collect observational data

Question 89

Informants

Answer 89

Those persons/actors who are observed

Question 90

Complete Participation

Answer 90

Observer takes part in activities, but identity of observer as researcher remains concealed

Question 91

Complete Observer

Answer 91

Observer observes activities but does not take part in these activities, while identity of observer as researcher remains concealed

Question 92

Observer as Participant

Answer 92

Observer observes activities but only takes part in activities if necessary, while identity of observer as researcher is known to those observed

Question 93

Participant as Observer

Answer 93

Observer fully takes part in activities, while identity of observer as researcher is known to those observed

Question 94

Primary Observation

Answer 94

The observer just plainly records what is happening or is said

Question 95

Secondary Observation

Answer 95

Observer describes what happened or was said, and thus already interprets the recordings

Question 96

Experiential Data

Answer 96

Data on personal perceptions and feelings

Question 97

Contextual Data

Answer 97

Data describing the situation in which activities and events are observed

Question 98

Descriptive Observation

Answer 98

Observations focussing on the descriptive narration of what is being observed

Question 99

Focused Observation

Answer 99

Observations which focus on particular aspects, events, interactions, while abstracting from other aspects

Question 100

Ecological Validity

Answer 100

Validity of observation which is solidified by how well it fits into the specific situation, and suits the different aspects and relations in that situation

Question 101

Observer Error

Answer 101

Observer is misunderstanding, and therefore misrepresenting, the observation

Question 102

Observer Drift

Answer 102

Observer during period of observation slowly but surely ‘goes native’ and therefore gets blind for specific aspects of the observed situation

Question 103

Observer Bias

Answer 103

Observer uses own subjective view or disposition to interpret and describe events

Question 104

Observer Effect

Answer 104

By being present the observer influences the situation and what happens in the situation observed

Question 105

Habituation

Answer 105

Informants get used to observer and increasingly return to normal behaviour again

Question 106

Informant Error

Answer 106

Informant is not representative for the phenomenon under investigation

Question 107

Time Error

Answer 107

The moment in which observation takes place is untypical for the phenomenon under investigation

Question 108

Grounded Theory

Answer 108

A qualitative approach aimed at generating theory that is grounded in the data. Key characteristics include an iterative, cyclic, and inductive procedure where case selection, data collection, and analysis are closely linked. Data analysis is carried out by means of a three-step coding procedure.

Question 109

Coding

Answer 109

Coding is a general term used for attaching ‘meanings’ or ‘interpretations’ to specific parts of our data, e.q. specific parts, sometimes also called ‘quotations’ of a transcript of an interview, or specific parts of an image, by allocating a ‘label’ or ‘code’ to that piece of text or that part of an image.

Question 110

Concept

Answer 110

A term used to describe a certain dimension or property of a phenomenon. Concepts can emerge out of the coding process and can be seen as a kind of higher-order code or general category.

Question 111

Constant Comparison

Answer 111

The analytic process of comparing different pieces of data for similarities and differences.

Question 112

Theoretical Sampling

Answer 112

Sampling directed by the evolving theory; it is a sampling of incidents, events and activities, populations etc. It is harnessed to the making of comparisons between and among those samples. Sampling on the basis of concepts derived from the data. The idea is to look out for situations that would bring out varying properties and dimensions of a concept. Data collection based on concepts that appear to be relevant to the evolving storyline.

Question 113

Theoretical Saturation

Answer 113

When additional analysis no longer contributes to discovering anything new about a category. Usually explained as the case ‘when no new data are emerging’.

Question 114

Open Coding

Answer 114

Breaking data apart in smaller units (‘quotations’) and attaching newly-defined codes to them.

Question 115

In Vivo Coding

Answer 115

Codes using the actual words of the research participants rather than being named by the researcher.

Question 116

Axial Coding

Answer 116

By comparing codes and by merging codes into higher-order categories, or splitting up codes or categories into more detailed (sub)codes or categories, through axial coding a system of more coherent codes/categories/concepts is produced, and in addition also relationships between codes/categories/concepts are established.

Question 117

Theoretical Coding

Answer 117

In the final step of theoretical coding, the coherent system and network or relations between codes/categories/concepts are summarised in an all comprising term or concept (e.g. ‘the theory of …’) which names the core phenomenon described by the theory.

Question 118

Abduction

Answer 118

In Constructivist Grounded Theory Analysis it is assumed that besides the data, also the presupposed ideas and theoretical insights of the researcher play a constitutive role in the theory developed. This is what is usually described as abduction.

Question 119

Situational Analysis

Answer 119

Situational analysis is intended as supplemental approaches to traditional grounded theory analyses that centre on the framing of action-basic social processes. Instead, situational analysis intends to map the key elements, materialities, discourses, structures and conditions that characterize the situation of inquiry.

Question 120

Constructivist Grounded Theory

Answer 120

In constructivist grounded theory analysis it is assumed that there is no objective reality to start our inductive process from, but that that reality is already a social construction. So neither data nor theories can just be ‘discovered’ by grounded theory analysis, but are co-constructed by the researcher and the participants.

Question 121

Category

Answer 121

A category is a higher-order and more general and comprehensive code often derived from comparison and systematization of the original open codings.

Question 122

Articulation

Answer 122

Articulation is a specific way in which one can create ‘meaning’, and take a certain position, and therefore change their identity and relationship to others.

Question 123

Discourse

Answer 123

A set of meanings, metaphors, representations, images, stories, statements and so on that in some way together produce a particular version of events. Surrounding any one object, event, person etc., there may be a variety of different discourses, each with a different story to tell about the world, a different way of representing it to the world.

Question 124

Ideology

Answer 124

Ideology can generally be thought of as the set of ideas, beliefs and aims that a person or group holds.

Question 125

Nexus of Practice

Answer 125

A nexus of practice refers to a group of people who come together to engage in a number of related social actions.

Question 126

Clusters of Meaning

Answer 126

This is the third step in phenomenological data analysis, in which the researcher clusters the statements into themes or meaning units, removing overlapping and repetitive statements (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 127

Epoché or Bracketing

Answer 127

This is the first step in “phenomenological reduction,” the process of data analysis in which the researcher sets aside, as far as is humanly possible, all preconceived experiences to best understand the experiences of participants in the study (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 128

Essential, Invariant Structure (or Essence)

Answer 128

This is the goal of the phenomenologist, to reduce the textural (what) and structural (how) meanings of experiences to a brief description that typifies the experiences of all of the participants in a study. All individuals experience it; hence, it is invariant, and it is a reduction to the “essentials” of the experiences (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 129

Hermeneutical Phenomenology

Answer 129

A form of phenomenology in which research is oriented toward interpreting the “texts” of life (hermeneutical) and lived experiences (phenomenology) (van Manen, 1990).

Question 130

Horizontalisation

Answer 130

This is the second step in the phenomenological data analysis, in which the researcher lists every significant statement relevant to the topic and gives it equal value (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 131

Imaginative Variation or Structural Description

Answer 131

Following the textural description, the researcher writes a “structural” description of an experience, addressing how the phenomenon was experienced. It involves seeking all possible meanings, looking for divergent perspectives, and varying the frames of reference about the phenomenon or using imaginative variation (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 132

The intentionality of Consciousness

Answer 132

Being conscious of objects always is intentional. Thus, when perceiving a tree, “my intentional experience is a combination of the outward appearance of the tree and the tree as contained in my consciousness based on memory, image, and meaning” (Moustakas, 1994, p. 55).

Question 133

Subjectivity of Participants researched

Answer 133

The way the participants subjectively interpret their situation and how their actions are led by these interpretations.

Question 134

Lived Experience

Answer 134

This term is used in phenomenological studies to emphasize the importance of individual experiences of people as conscious human beings (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 135

Phenomenological Data Analysis

Answer 135

Several approaches to analyzing phenomenological data are represented in the literature. Moustakas (1994) reviews these approaches and then advances his own. Creswell and Poth (2018) rely on Moustakas’ modification that includes the researcher bringing personal experiences into the study, the recording of significant statements and meaning units, and the development of descriptions to arrive at the essence of the experiences.

Question 136

Phenomenological Study

Answer 136

This type of study describes the common meaning of experiences of a phenomenon (or topic or concept) for several individuals. In this type of qualitative study, the researcher reduces the experiences to a central meaning or the “essence” of the experience (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 137

Phenomenon

Answer 137

This is the central concept being examined by the phenomenologist. It is the concept being experienced by subjects in a study, which may include psychological concepts such as grief, anger, or love.

Question 138

Philosophical Perspectives

Answer 138

Specific philosophical perspectives provide the foundation for phenomenological studies. They originated in the 1930s writings of Husserl. These perspectives include the investigator’s conducting research with a broader perspective than that of traditional empirical, quantitative science; suspending his or her own preconceptions of experiences; experiencing an object through his or her own senses (i.e., being conscious of an object) as well as seeing it “out there” as real; and reporting the meaning individuals ascribe to an experience in a few statements that capture the “essence” (Stewart & Mickunas, 1990).

Question 139

Psychological Approach

Answer 139

This is the approach taken by psychologists who discuss the inquiry procedures of phenomenology (e.g., Giorgi, 1994, 2009; Moustakas, 1994; Polkinghorne, 1989). In their writings, they examine psychological themes for meaning, and they may incorporate their own selves into the studies.

Question 140

Structural Description

Answer 140

From the first three steps in phenomenological data analysis, the researcher writes a description of “how” the phenomenon was experienced by individuals in the study (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 141

Textural Description

Answer 141

From the first three steps in phenomenological data analysis, the researcher writes about what was experienced, a description of the meaning individuals have experienced (Moustakas, 1994).

Question 142

Transcendental Phenomenology

Answer 142

According to Moustakas (1994), Husserl espoused transcendental phenomenology, and it later became a guiding concept for Moustakas as well. In this approach, the researcher sets aside prejudgments regarding the phenomenon being investigated. Also, the researcher relies on intuition, imagination, and universal structures to obtain a picture of the experience, and the inquirer uses systematic methods of analysis as advanced by Moustakas (1994).

Question 143

Being in the World

Answer 143

Acting with awareness, responsibility, and freedom within a context of given world-conditions.

Question 144

Existentials

Answer 144

Basic structures which comprise the ground of existence, like space, time, motion, relation, embodiment.

Question 145

Intersubjectivity

Answer 145

The process of several, or many people, coming to know a common phenomenon, each through his or her subjective experience.

Question 146

Phenomenological Reduction

Answer 146

(1) an attempt to suspend the observer’s viewpoint. (2) Hearing another person’s reality and focussing on the central, dominant, or recurring themes which represent the essential qualities or meanings of that person’s experience.

Question 147

Culture

Answer 147

A set of beliefs, practices, and symbols that are learned and shared. Together, they form an all-encompassing, integrated whole that binds people together and shapes their worldview and lifeways.

Question 148

Emic

Answer 148

A description of the studied culture from the perspective of a member of the culture or insider.

Question 149

Etic

Answer 149

A description of the studied culture from the perspective of an observer or outsider.

Question 150

Ethnocentrism

Answer 150

The tendency to view one’s own culture as most important and correct and as the stick by which to measure all other cultures.

Question 151

Ethnography

Answer 151

The in-depth study of the everyday practices and lives of people in a specific community. Typically, ethnography involves the study of a small group of subjects in their own environment. Rather than looking at a small set of variables and a large number of subjects (“the big picture”), the ethnographer attempts to get a detailed understanding of the circumstances of the few subjects being studied. Ethnographic accounts, then, are both descriptive and interpretive; descriptive, because detail is so crucial, and interpretive because the ethnographer must determine the significance of what she observes without gathering broad, statistical information.

Question 152

Indigenous

Answer 152

People who have continually lived in a particular location for a long period of time (prior to the arrival of others) or who have historical ties to a location and who are culturally distinct from the dominant population surrounding them.

Question 153

Key Informant

Answer 153

Individuals who are more knowledgeable about their culture than others and who are particularly helpful to the ethnographic researcher in getting in contact with participants.

Question 154

Thick Description

Answer 154

A term coined by anthropologist Clifford Geertz in his 1973 book The Interpretation of Cultures to describe a detailed description of the studied group that not only explains the behaviour or cultural event in question but also the context in which it occurs and anthropological interpretations of it.

Question 155

Popular Culture

Answer 155

Popular culture refers to the cultural meaning systems and cultural practices employed by the majority classes in a society. The movie with the biggest weekend gross box office total, the number one song on the Billboard charts, the most widely read books and the highest-ranked television show in the ratings are important elements of the popular culture. Popular culture is often discussed in contrast to high culture.

Question 156

High Culture

Answer 156

As the term “culture” has come to have a broader meaning, more inclusive of everything within a given culture rather than simply the most elite cultural manifestations, the term “high culture” has begun to serve for referring to those aspects of culture which are most highly valued and esteemed by a given society’s political, social, economic, and intellectual elite. Opera, yachting, art are associated with high culture.

Question 157

Normative

Answer 157

A “norm” is “a standard, model, or pattern regarded as typical”. A process is said to be “normative” when it results in bringing atypical patterns in line with typical ones. Socialization, for example, is often a normative process, as it involves bringing social pressures to bear on behaviour that is considered unusual.

Question 158

Relativism

Answer 158

Relativism refers to a theory or philosophy which argues that abstract values like truth, beauty, and morality are not absolute, but rather that they are dependent on the culture in which they exist. A relativistic view of the world would see one culture’s notion of “truth” as being valid only relative to that culture; a second culture’s notion of “truth” could be quite different, and yet still be valid relative to that second culture. An important element of relativistic theory is its argument that abstract conceptions like truth, beauty and morality do not exist in the absence of human cultures; instead, they are created by cultures and are negotiated and changed through cultural processes.

Question 159

Reproduction

Answer 159

“Reproduction,” as it is applied to culture, is the process by which aspects of culture are passed on from person to person or from society to society.

Question 160

Semiotics

Answer 160

Semiotics is the study of how signs and symbols relate to the things they represent.

Question 161

Sign

Answer 161

A sign is a variable – like a word, for example – which stands for another variable or meaning.

Question 162

Society

Answer 162

A society is any group of people living together in a group and constituting a single related, interdependent community.

Question 163

System of Meaning

Answer 163

A system of meaning is a set of relationships between one group of variables (like words, behaviours, physical symbols, etc.) and the meanings which are attached to them.

Question 164

Symbol

Answer 164

Anything that is taken to mean something beyond what it is can be said to be symbolic.

Question 165

Agency of visual objects

Answer 165

The way images or visual objects can do things, have influence, and have an impact.

Question 166

Audiencing

Answer 166

The process by which a visual image is confronted with an audience, and in which its meaning is (re-)negotiated by particular audiences in specific circumstances.

Question 167

Gaze

Answer 167

A way of seeing, a form of visuality, that is culturally constituted, and in which we are immersed in.

Question 168

Genre

Answer 168

Images associated or recognized as belonging to an accepted class, are said to be representative of e ‘genre’. Dutch still-life paintings, for example, form a particular genre, but also ‘war photography’, or ‘holiday pictures’.

Question 169

Icon

Answer 169

A sign that communicates is meaning by looking some-thing like, i.e. resembling the object it refers to.

Question 170

Indexicality

Answer 170

The property of the context-dependency of signs, hence the need to explore meaning-making in which placement of a sign in the material world is central.

Question 171

Modalities of Visual Data

Answer 171

Different aspects of visual data such as:
o Technological aspects
o Compositional aspects
o Social aspects

Question 172

Multimodality of Visual Images

Answer 172

Visual images make sense in relation to other modes of information, like written texts, other images, other objects.

Question 173

Narrative Structure

Answer 173

Examines how a story is communicated. This may refer to a set of documentary photographs, a film or comic strips.

Question 174

Occularcentrism

Answer 174

The apparent centrality of the visual to contemporary Western life.

Question 175

Photo-Elicitation

Answer 175

Using a picture (or video) as a stimulant in an interview situation. Akin to object-, drawing-, painting- etc. elicitation.

Question 176

Polysemic

Answer 176

A sign is said to be polysemic when it has more than one meaning. Polysemic images are ambiguous and have many possible meanings.

Question 177

Representation

Answer 177

Constructed meanings which structure the way people behave

Question 178

Scopic Regime

Answer 178

The way in which both what is seen and how it is seen are culturally constructed.

Question 179

Semiotics (Semiology)

Answer 179

The science which investigates how symbolic meanings are made (the study of signs).

Question 180

Signified

Answer 180

A (real) object or an (essential) concept

Question 181

Simulacrum

Answer 181

An image which makes it impossible to make a distinction between the real and the unreal.

Question 182

Site of Analysis of Visual Data

Answer 182

The different sites in which visual data play a role, such as:
o	Site of production
o	Site of image itself
o	Site of audiences
o	Site of circulation

Question 183

Vision

Answer 183

What the human eye is physiologically capable of seeing.

Question 184

Visual Culture

Answer 184

The plethora of ways in which the visual is part of social life.

Question 185

Visuality

Answer 185

The way in which vision is constructed, determining how we are made to see, and what is kept hidden for us.

Question 186

Ways of Seeing

Answer 186

We never look at one thing objectively but are always looking at it (our way of seeing) from the perspective of our relationship between the thing and ourselves.