5 (critical) Discourse analysis Flashcards
The Origins of Discourse Theory
Discourse analysis is founded upon discourse theory. The impact of this theory on the social sciences cannot be understated. That is because discourse theory offered a novel perspective on the structure-agency problem, also known as the macro-micro debate.
In short, this was a major debate within the social sciences in the 20th century about whether the behavior is determined by social structure (e.g. the culture and institutions within one grew up), or subject to the free will of individuals.
Discourse theory was born from linguistic theories that mainly revolved the concept of ‘meaning’. 20th-century linguists and philosophers were determined to find out where meaning comes from.
Structuralism
Discourse theory can be traced back to structuralism, a linguistic theory that was developed by Ferdinand de Saussure and later adopted by other philosophers along with the likes of Claude Lévi-Strauss. In his search for the origins of meaning, Saussure studied language systems as systems of signs that express ideas. Specifically, he distinguished between the signifier (such as an image or the word ‘dog’) and the signified (the concept of ‘dog’; that what the signifier refers to).
Critiques on structuralism and poststructuralism
Saussure’s theory implied meaning (because of its structural origins) was static. Additionally, Saussure failed to account for the conceptual relationship between the structure of a language system, and the way language was used in everyday situations.
He distinguished between langue and parole, with langue referring to “an ordered system of signs with lawlike properties”, and parole to “language as individual acts of speaking”. This under specification contradicts the structural approach to language.
It was rightly pointed out that for language to be used in everyday life, context played a vital role. This, in turn, would mean that meaning is not derived solely from the structure of language systems.
Derrida’s critique gave way to the rise of poststructuralism. Poststructuralism acknowledges the role of individual actors in the creation of meaning.
This conceptualization of meaning would come to be called discourse and would come to full fruition in the works of Foucault, among others.
Fundamentals of (Critical) Discourse Analysis
Basic idea: through the use of language - or any other form of symbolic expression -, we constitute and structure the meaning of the world around us.
Meaning is not objectively pre-given, but is socially constructed through our practical use of language.
There are many different definitions and forms of discourse. But in our case, a discourse refers to a much broader phenomenon. It refers to everything which somehow expresses, communicates, performs or represents ‘meaning’.
The linguist James Gee provides us with a useful definition. He describes discourse as ‘the way language is used in a social context’.
Specific meanings become established and dominant, and are perceived as politically correct, while others are not. Some discourses are more powerful, and others are less powerful. In this way, according to Gee, a discourse can determine what is important or significant.
It has historically developed from linguistics and was influenced by Foucauldian post-structuralist and Gramscian neo-Marxist, as well as the Critical Realist schools of thinking, leading to different versions of discourse analysis.
In critical discourse analysis, we analytically distinguish between three dimensions of context in which meaningful actions take place. ‘linguistic practice’, ‘discursive practice’ and ‘social practice’.
How to Perform Critical Discourse Analysis
- Establish the location and time-frame (background check)
- Explore the production process (background check)
- Prepare material for analysis
- Code material
- Examine (macro) structure of the text
- Collect and examine (micro) structure on the level of discursive statements
- Identify cultural references (intertextuality)
- Identify linguistic and rhetorical mechanisms (zooming in on language)
- Interpret the data
- Present your findings
