4 Observation Flashcards
Introduction to observation
Using observation in research can give you lots and lots of information. But for that information to come to you, you need to be very attentive.
Observation is actually one of the main methods in qualitative research. It entails viewing, describing, analyzing, and interpreting human behavior. What you observe, of course depends on your research aim and research questions. You could observe a physical setting, specific informants, specific activities and conversations.
The people you study with observation are usually called informants. Observation gives you access to your informant’s real life situations, that means it always provides rich information that is relevant to your informants.
four different approaches to observation
o Participant observation
o Structured observation
o Internet-mediated observation
o Video-graphical observation
Participant observation
In participant observation, a researcher enters the research setting, which is usually the social world of the informants, and participates to a certain extent while observing.
As a complete participant you aim to become a member of the group you are studying and you do not reveal that you are a researcher, because you are afraid your informants do not want to cooperate anymore.
As a complete observer you do not participate, but you also do not want to reveal your role as researcher.
As an observer as participant, your primary purpose is to observe, but you need to participate a bit to be able to observe. In this role, you do reveal that you are a researcher.
Then as a participant as observer, your primary purpose is also to observe,
but you need a lot of participation in order to observe. In this role you also do reveal that you are a researcher.
descriptions and interpretations
When you’re taking notes it’s difficult to separate descriptions from interpretations. When you see something happening, your mind immediately makes interpretations and that’s good, but in an observation you should distinguish between what you actually see and what your personal interpretations are.
To separate descriptions from interpretations in your observations, it works best if you make a three-fold scheme: one column to write down your descriptions, one to write down your interpretations, and one to include reflections about the observational process.
History of participant observation
Participant observation was first developed by ethnographers in the field of social ethnography but has since then been used by scientists from all disciplines within the social sciences. The Chicago School (University of Chicago) was one of the first to recognize that participant observation can be used to study social phenomena.
This is because participant observation gives access to the ‘symbolic world’ of your informants; something that we already touched upon in the video. We also call this symbolic interactions.
Symbolic interactionism is about the relation between an informant’s sense of identity and his/her social circumstances. When you started university (or perhaps a different job), you might have moved away from your hometown. You met a bunch of new people and developed new interests. Along the way, you changed as a person. This is what symbolic interactionism is about.
Taking Notes when Conducting Observations
Primary observations: Data in which you note what happened or what was said at the time.
Secondary observations: Statements by observers of what happened or what was said. This necessarily involves observers’ interpretations.
Experiential data: Data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are researching.
Contextual data: Data related to the research setting; for example, roles played by key informants and how these may have changed; organizational structures and communication patterns that will help you interpret other data.
Limitations of Participant Observation
The first factor to take into account is ethical considerations. Participant observation can take place both overtly and covertly. Failing to announce your true purpose to your informants can be extremely harmful to your relationship with them. However, in other situations, covert observations might be a necessary evil.
The latter stance utilizes the (alleged) presence of the observer effect. This effect describes the influence that the researcher exerts simply by being there. When people know they are being watched, they might engage in socially desired behavior.
Other limitations of participant observation include observer error and observer bias. Observer error refers to the relationship between a researcher and the object of observation. In observer bias, a researcher interprets their observations through their own subjective lens, thus ruling out other (contrasting) interpretations.
Informant verification
You should always be sensitive to multiple interpretations of the events you’re observing and strive for objective observations. One way to test this would be to share your interpretations with some of your informants and get their take on them.
Structured observation
Unlike participant observation, its aim is to quantify behavior. If you want to use structured observations, you usually have a coding schedule with relevant items you want to observe. Structured observation is often used in market research.
Advantages of structured observation
It can be used by anyone after suitable
training in the use of the measuring
instrument.
It should yield reliable results by virtue
of its replicability. The easier the
observation instrument is to use and
understand, the more reliable the results
will be
Structured observation is capable
of more than simply observing the
frequency of events. It is also possible to
record the relationship between events.
The method allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural setting. Therefore, there is no need to depend on ‘ second- hand’ accounts of phenomena from participants who put their own interpretation on events
Structured observation secures data that
most informants would ignore because
to them these are too mundane or
irrelevant
Disadvantages of structured observation
Unless virtual observation is used, the observer must be in the research setting when the phenomena under study are taking place.
Behaviours, interactions and events being observed may occur simultaneously or in complex ways, making coding difficult and potentially unreliable.
While structured observation is helpful in recording the incidence of behaviours, interactions or events these observations are limited to overt actions or surface
indicators.
Without the prior specification or development of theory, structured observations will be of only limited
value for research. Analysis needs to look for patterns of behaviours, interactions or events to explain the data collected and to understand their impact in the observed situation.
Not recognising environmental variability within a research setting may invalidate conclusions drawn from structured observation. Behaviours, interactions and
events are likely to be contingent on (shaped by) the environment and ignoring this variable is likely to cast doubt on the conclusions.
Data may be slow (and expensive) to collect.
informant error
Informant error refers to a situation where your sample is not accurate enough to gather reliable data.
time error
Time error occurs when you observe your informants during a period that is not representative of the total time period in which you are interested.
Internet-Mediated Observations
Internet-mediated observations are a newer phenomenon, especially within ethnographic research designs. This includes the observation of online communities. You could be interested in the culture of certain (private) groups on Facebook or Reddit. Forums, email lists, hyperlinks and web pages provide vast amounts of (quantitative) data to explore.
Synchronous texts
refer to an exchange whereby participants are simultaneously present. This could, for example, be a live stream with an accompanying chat.
