Key Studies and Vocabulary - LEARNING THEORIES

Question 1

why is Pavlov (1927) important to classical conditioning?

Answer 1

Ivan Pavlov was a biologist who was studying salivation in dogs in the 1890s when he noticed that the dogs started to salivate before their food arrived, when they heard the footsteps of the researcher bringing their food.
Food is an unconditioned stimulus - it provokes an innate, reflex response of salivation (an unconditioned response to food). Pavlov found that the dogs could be conditioned to associate different neutral stimuli with the food, such as the sound of a bell or metronome. He conducted carefully controlled, laboratory experiments, collecting and measuring the dogs’ saliva in surgically attached vials. When the bell was presented at the same time as the food, the dogs made an association between the food (UCS) and the bell (NS). After repeated pairings, the bell elicited a salivary response even in the absence of food. The bell had become Conditioned Stimulus, which elicited the conditioned response of salivation.

Pavlov conducted his studies with dogs between the 1890s and 1930s. The behaviourist Watson (1913) further developed the theory of classical conditioning and demonstrated its application in a human participant with the child ‘LIttle Albert’ (Watson and Rayner, 1920).

Question 2

Why is Watson and Rayner (1920) important to classical conditioning?

Answer 2

Watson and Rayner (1920) Little Albert: Conditioned emotional reactions
Watson and Rayner presented the infant, Little Albert with a white rat, to which he showed no fear. They then paired the presentation of the rat with a loud noise, which startled the child. After repeated pairing of the loud bang and the rat, Little Albert responded to the rat with fear - a conditioned response.

Question 3

Define stimulus

Answer 3

something that is sensed by the organism that provokes or ‘elicits’ a response

Question 4

Define response

Answer 4

a behaviour produced by the organism when exposed to a stimulus

Question 5

Define unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Answer 5

a stimulus that elicits an automatic behaviour that is an innate reflex response (this is an UCR)

Question 6

Define Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Answer 6

an innate reflex response to an UCS.

Question 7

Define Neutral stimulus

Answer 7

a stimulus that can be sensed by the organism but does not elicit a response.

Question 8

Define conditioned stimulus

Answer 8

A stimulus that was neutral, but after pairing with an UCS now provokes a learned response.

Question 9

Define stimulus generalisation

Answer 9

when a CR is elicited by stimuli that are different from, but similar to the original CS e.g. different furry animals all provoke the same learned fear response.

Question 10

Define Conditioned Response

Answer 10

a learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Question 11

Define stimulus discrimination

Answer 11

when the organism distinguishes between the CS and other similar, but different stimuli e.g. different types of bell/alarm sounds - only one elicits the learned response.

Question 12

Define extinction

Answer 12

when the learned association between stimuli ends and the CS no longer elicits the CR (basically it becomes an NS again)

Question 13

Define spontaneous recovery

Answer 13

following extinction, sometimes the learned association returns and the CS starts to elicit the CR again, even without repeated pairing with the UCS.

Question 14

What research methods are used in classical conditioning?

Answer 14

Observation
Laboratory study

Laboratory Experiment
Single Participant experiment

Question 15

Why is Skinner (1935) important to operant conditioning?

Answer 15

Skinner (1935) used laboratory experiments using rats and pigeons to demonstrate operant conditioning.
He designed a box (called a Skinner box) to conduct experiments using rats, using positive reinforcement (food pellets) to reinforce behaviour such as pressing a lever. The rats also learned to avoid electric shocks by pressing a lever (negative reinforcement).

Question 16

Why is Skinner (1948) important to operant conditioning?

Answer 16

Skinner (1948) carried out a famous experiment called “Superstition in the Pigeon”. Eight pigeons were starved to make them hungry then put in a cage. At regular intervals every 15 seconds, a food dispenser would swing into the cage for 5 seconds then swing out again. When the food was due to appear, the pigeons started showing strange behaviours, such as turning anticlockwise or making swaying motions.

Skinner concluded the pigeons were repeating whatever behaviour they had been in the middle of doing when the reinforcement was first offered to them. Because the food kept reappearing, this senseless behaviour was strengthened.

Question 17

define positive reinforcement

Answer 17

a desirable consequence (a reward) follows an action, which strengthens the behaviour preceding it, making it more likely that the action will be repeated.

Question 18

define negative reinforcement

Answer 18

an undesirable/aversive stimulus e.g. a loud noise is avoided by a behaviour, making it more likely that this behaviour will be repeated.

Question 19

define positive punishment

Answer 19

a behaviour is followed by a negative or unpleasant consequence, which weakens the behaviour, making it less likely to be repeated.

Question 20

define negative punishment

Answer 20

A behaviour is followed by the removal of a desired/pleasant stimulus e.g. food is taken away or pocket money is stopped. This weakens the behaviour, so it is less likely to be repeated

Question 21

define primary reinforcement

Answer 21

the reward is a basic need e.g. food, water, warmth, pleasure, comfort.

Question 22

define secondary reinforcement

Answer 22

the reward is not itself a basic need, but can give access to a way to meet a basic need. E.g. money or vouchers can be used to buy food.

Question 23

define continuous reinforcement

Answer 23

each behaviour is reinforced with a reward or desirable response.

Question 24

define partial reinforcement

Answer 24

Only some of the behaviours are rewarded, or only some of the time.

Question 25

define schedules of reinforcement

Answer 25

structured plans for how reinforcement should be given - either how many behaviours should get the reward (ratio), or how much time between rewards (interval).

Question 26

define shaping

Answer 26

a form of behaviour modification whereby at first any behaviour that approximates or moves toward the desired behaviour is reinforced, then only closer approximations to the desired behaviour are reinforced, then only the exact desired behaviour is reinforced.

Question 27

What research methods are used in operant conditioning?

Answer 27

Observation
Laboratory study

Laboratory Experiment
Research using animals

Question 28

Why is Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) important to social learning theory?

Answer 28

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961) investigated whether children would reproduce the same aggressive behaviour that they had observed being modelled by an adult. Children watched an adult model hitting a bobo doll. It was found that when given the opportunity to do so, the children were able to reproduce the same physical and verbal aggression acts that had been modelled by the adult. A control group of children who observed a non-aggressive model showed very little aggressive behaviour.

Question 29

Why is Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) important to social learning theory?

Answer 29

Bandura, Ross and Ross (1963) investigated whether children would imitate aggressive behaviour seen in a film of a human model and a ‘cartoon’ model. Children saw either a live human model (as in the 1961 study), a filmed human aggressive model, a cartoon film aggressive model, or no aggressive model (control group). Significantly more aggressive behaviour was recorded in the children who had seen the human film, cartoon, and live aggressive models, compared to children in the control group.

Question 30

Why is Bandura (1965) important to social learning theory?

Answer 30

Bandura (1965) investigated the effect of vicarious reinforcement and punishment on whether children would imitate aggressive behaviour of a filmed adult model.
The aggressive model in the film was either observed to be rewarded with sweets and soft drinks and called a ‘strong champion’ or punished and called a ‘big bully’. There was also a ‘no consequence’ control condition. Some children were also offered incentives (juice and a sticker book) for repeating the acts and phrases they had observed.

When offered an incentive, the number of imitative acts was higher in all conditions. With no incentive,highest aggression was seen in boys, in the ‘model rewarded’ and ‘no consequences’ conditions. With no incentive, girls showed very low imitative acts when the model was punished but higher mean imitative acts in the rewarded and no-consequence conditions. The number of imitative responses was lowest (for boys and girls) in the no-incentive group who observed the model being punished, but the introduction of rewards for imitative acts took away the effect of observed punishment.

Question 31

define model

Answer 31

the person displaying the behaviour that is observed. This is also a verb - to model the desired behaviour

Question 32

define modelling

Answer 32

the person displaying the behaviour (the model) can be said to be ‘modeling’ the behaviour e.g. Peter modelled the desired behaviour of lifting the toilet seat so that his son Billy would learn to do this when he uses the bathroom, by observing and imitating his father.

Question 33

define vicarious reinforcement

Answer 33

observing someone else (a model) being reinforced/rewarded for an action makes it more likely that that behaviour will be imitated and repeated by the observer.

Question 34

define vicarious punishment

Answer 34

observing someone else (a model) being punished (an aversive or unpleasant consequence) following an action makes it less likely that that observed behaviour will be imitated and repeated by the observer

Question 35

define the different stages of social learning theory in order to imitate an observed behaviour

Answer 35

In order to imitate an observed behaviour:

Attention - The observer has to pay attention to the behaviour being modeled
Retention - the episodic memory of the action needs to be encoded and stored.
Reproduction - the modelled behaviour is carried out if/when the opportunity to do so arises.
Motivation - reproduction takes place because there is expectation that this will be rewarded (reinforcement). Punishment will demotivate someone, making reproduction less likely.

Question 36

What research methods are used in social learning theory?

Answer 36

Observation
Structured Observation

Non-participant observation
Covert observation
Inter-observer reliability

Laboratory study
Laboratory Experiment

Question 37

Why is Watson and Rayner (1920) important to phobias?

Answer 37

Watson & Rayner (1920) demonstrated the acquisition of a new fear of rats in a child called Little Albert, through classical conditioning. They presented the infant with a rat, then made a loud sound with a metal bar that upset him. Little Albert learned to associate the rat with the frightening bang that was presented at the same time and after repeated pairings, the boys responded with a conditioned fear response to the rat, without the loud noise.

Question 38

Why is Cook and Mineka (1989) important to phobias?

Answer 38

Cook and Mineka (1989) - monkeys acquired a fear of snakes simply through watching videotapes of two model monkeys reacting fearfully to toy snakes

Question 39

Why is Lieb et al. (2000) important to phobias?

Answer 39

Lieb et al (2000) found that children of parents with social phobias were likely to have social phobia too. This is consistent with the idea that children can learn phobias through observation.

Question 40

How can classical conditioning explain the acquisition of phobias?

Answer 40

Classical Conditioning can explain the acquisition of a new fear through a fearful experience e.g. a car accident. The person learns to associate a neutral stimulus (car) with a fearful stimulus (UCS)(loud crash). The car becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a fear response, leading to a phobia of car travel. Stimulus generalisation can occur e.g. the fear may be extended to other forms of transport. Watson and Rayner’s classic study of Little Albert is the most famous demonstration of the acquisition of a phobia through classical conditioning

Question 41

How can social learning theory explain the acquisition of phobias?

Answer 41

Social Learning Theory can explain the acquisition of a new fear through learning by observation. If a child observes their dad showing fear of spiders, the child will attend to, retain and reproduce the same fearful response that they have observed.

Question 42

How can operant conditioning and negative reinforcement explain the acquistition of phobias?

Answer 42

Operant conditioning and negative reinforcement can explain the maintenance of the phobia.This means that Instead of being exposed to the stimulus again and learning that it is not harmful/fearful, leading to extinction , the phobia continues to persist.

Question 43

What research methods are used when thinking of phobias?

Answer 43

Laboratory study
Laboratory study using animals

Laboratory observation
Structured observation

Question 44

How is Mary Cover Jones (1924) important to the treatment of phobias?

Answer 44

Mary Cover Jones (1924) deconditioned the fear of a rabbit in a child called Peter. She gradually moved the rabbit closer to Peter, pairing the presentation of the rabbit with a pleasurable stimulus - food. Social Learning was also used with Peter, as he observed other children (role-models) interacting happily with the rabbit

Question 45

How is Toozandejhani (2011) important to the treatment of phobias?

Answer 45

Toozandejhani (2011) found that SD was an effective treatment for social phobia, but the symptoms returned after the treatment.

Question 46

How is Capafons et al. (1998) important to the treatment of phobias?

Answer 46

Capafons et al (1998) recruited 41 aerophobia sufferers in Spain and treated 20 of them with SD, and had 21 members of a control group. The treatment group was given 2x1 hour sessions of in vivo and in vitro techniques a week over a 12-15 week period.
During a flight simulation, self-reports and physiological measures of anxiety were used. The results showed all but two those who had SD treatment reported lower levels of fear and were seen to have less anxiety, and one member of the control group showed signs of improvement. While SD is effective it was not 100% effective.

Question 47

How is Wolpe (1960, 1973) important to the treatment of phobias?

Answer 47

Wolpe (1960, 1973) found that driving around in a car with a student with a fear of car travel (flooding) for hours, cured her phobia!

Question 48

How is Hogan and Kirchner (1969) important to the treatment of phobias?

Answer 48

Hogan and Kirchner (1969) found that imaginal flooding - imagining intensely frightening situations involving rats - extinguished the fear of rats in a sample of students.

Question 49

How does systematic desensitisation work?

Answer 49

Uses classical conditioning principles to decondition the learned fear. The aim is for the person to associate the phobic situation/object with being in a relaxed state. Treatment starts by training the client to use muscle relaxation techniques, breathing, and/or meditation techniques to learn to relax. Pulse and breathing rate can be used as measures of anxiety/relaxation. They then, together with the therapist, draw up a hierarchy of the least to most fearful situations that they can imagine. Gradual exposure begins with the least fearful scenario (either in vivo or in vitro) e.g. looking at a picture of the phobic object. The client uses their relaxation techniques until they are in a calm relaxed state before moving to the next stage of the hierarchy. If the client is relaxed at each stage, they should be relaxed with the phobic object present

Question 50

How does Flooding work?

Answer 50

Flooding also uses classical conditioning, but does not include relaxation techniques, or gradual exposure. The client is either placed in, or imagines, the most fearful scenario possible, involving exposure to the phobic object or situation. Although they feel extremely fearful during this exposure, the body cannot sustain this intense state of anxiety and eventually the client will be exhausted and become calm. They are not allowed to leave the situation until their fear has completely subsided and they are calm (note that unlike SD where the client is in control, at this point during flooding the client is not in control of the situation). The learned response of fear is extinguished and replaced with a new response of non-fear.

Question 51

What research methods are used when thinking of treatment of phobias?

Answer 51

Single participant study
Laboratory study

Randomised controlled trial (RCT)