Key definitions etc. Flashcards
What is a radical
Atoms with an unpaired electron. They are formed from CFCs and by using UV Radiation and high energy radiation. Molecules can undergo homolytic fission and create radicals.
Explain why you cannot measure the enthalpy bond of formation of 2 reactants?
Because they don’t react together under standard conditions. There will be side products formed.
What is the CO bond in CO2?
A DOUBLE BOND (this is important for calculating bond enthalpy)
What is one main thing about concentrated acids?
They create a greater change in oxidation states.
How to obtain a more accurate value for the enthalpy change of combustion? (PAG related)
Insulate the can.
Burn the material in oxygen to ensure it is fully oxidised.
Explain Le Chatelier’s principle
There will be an equilibrium shift in an reaction to minimise the effects of a change in a condition
Define the enthalpy change of combustion
The enthalpy change for the complete combustion of 1mol of a substance under standard conditions (100kPa and 298K)
Define the enthalpy change formation
The enthalpy change when 1 mol of substance is formed from its elements under standard conditions.
If they ever ask you to calculate the enthalpy change of combustion, what is one thing to remember ?
ENTHALPY CHANGE OF COMBUSTION IS ALWAYS NEGATIVE
How can you identify for Fe?
Add NaOH and if it creates a green precipitate, Fe is present.
How can you identify non-polar and polar molecules?
If there is a lone pair of electrons on the central atom, then the molecule is polar.
Where is electronegativity the highest?
Generally, F is the highest in electronegativity. It increases from left to right, and from the bottom up.
What difference in electronegativity makes a bond polar?
0.4 - 1.7 means it is polar covalent
What is electronegativity?
An atom’s ability to attract a pair of electrons in a covalent bond.
Tests for halide ions
Add some drops of nitric acid.
Then some silver nitrate solution.
Observe the colour of the precipitate.
Testing for sulfate ions
Add barium chloride (or barium nitrate).
If a white precipitate is formed, then sulfate ions are present (as it create Barium sulfate)
Testing for carbonate ions
Add dilute HCl. Put any gas being formed to lime-water. If it turns cloudy, then the gas being formed is carbon dioxide.
How can you obtain an accurate value for the ethalpy change of combustion?
Insulate the can.
Put a lid of the can.
Burn the fuel in oxygen to ensure full oxidation.
How can you differentiate between alcohols?
Add acidified potassium dichromate (VI) annd tertiary alcohols will stay the same colour. But pirmary and secondary ones will change their colour (turn green)
Markownikoff’s Rule
When a HX reacts with an assymetrical alkene, the X will bond to the Carbon bonded to the most Carbons. Because a tertiary carbocation is more stable than a secondary one.
What are the 4 main stages in a simple generalised model of heterogeneous catalysis.
Stage 1 reactant(s) adsorbed/bond to surface of catalyst
Stage 2 (reactant) bonds (weaken) and break
Stage 3 (product) new bonds form
Stage 4 product(s) desorbed from surface of catalyst
What colour is iodine in cyclohexane
Purple
What colour is bromine in cyclohexane
Orange
What colour is chlorine in cyclohexane
Colourless
Are hydrogen bonding stronger than dipole-dipole interactions
Yes, they are. This means that they require more heat to break.
Difference between absorption and emission spectrum
The difference between absorption and emission spectra are that absorption lines are where light has been absorbed by the atom thus you see a dip in the spectrum whereas emission spectra have spikes in the spectra due to atoms releasing photons at those wavelengths.
How does the salt form in this reaction?
The hydrogen ion of the acid has been replaced by a metal ion
What is the one thing u should remember when you are writing equations for ionisation energies?
INCLUDE STATE SYMBOLS (always gases)
Why is a molecule polar?
Because the molecule is non-symmetrical and so the dipoles don’t cancel out. This means there is a net dipole on the molecule
What is the difference between a base and an alkali
A base is a substance that readily accepts H+ ions.
An alkali is a substance that releases OH- ions into aqueous solutions
What is a homologous series?
Same functional group
Same general formula
Each successive member differs by the addition of a CH2 group.
Same physical and chemical properties.
Name the 2 stages that’ll turn an alkane into an ethene.
fractional distillation and cracking.
What does “average bond enthalpy” mean
Average enthalpy change when one mole of bonds of gaseous covalent bonds is broken
Properties of a gas in an aerosol:
Low reactivity Non-flammable Volatile Low boiling point Non-toxic.
What happens to a molecule when IR is absorbed?
The bond will vibrate and bend more.
Why may your value of Energy change be smaller than expected?
Incomplete combustion
Non-standard conditions
Evaporation of water or alcohol
Count towards the SHC of beaker.
Describe the relative energies of the 2s orbital and each of the three 2p orbitals in a
nitrogen atom.
p-orbitals have greater energy than s-orbitals
(three) p-orbitals have equal energy
Solid chlorine and solid bromine have a similar structure.
Name this structure.
Simple covalent
Main points in:
Explain the differences in the melting points of sodium and magnesium, using the model of
metallic bonding.
Just remember that the Mg has a greater attraction between the ions and the delocalised electrons.
Give the formula and the name of the compound formed between fluorine and sulfur
which has octahedral molecules.
SF6.
Called sulfurhexafluoride.
If you are going to produce X(OH)2 as a product, then the H20 you are reacting with, needs to be what state?
The H20 needs to be in a liquid state.
Otherwise, it will produce XO, when the H20 is in a gaseous state.
What shape is a F20?
Bent/ non-linear.
It has bond angles of 104.5
On a F20, what is the dipole?
Negative on the F, positive on the O.
In F20, what is the oxidation state of the O?
+2
Where are the ionisation numbers the highest?
It increases from right to left, and from bottom to top.
So the highest, is top right.
Define the second ionisation energies
It is the energy needed to remove a second electron from each ion in 1 mole of gaseous 1+ ions to give gaseous 2+ ions.
What is hydrolysis
When you break something down by adding water.
How carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide is made in catalytic converters, and emitted from cars.
Generally, they are formed due to incomplete combustion, so incomplete combustion equations for the reactions/ pollutants mentioned.
Then, talk about how a catalytic converter works.
Reactnats are absorbed onto surface, then the bonds are weakened. Then, the reaction takes place (the 2 pollutants react together, to form usually CO2 and N2). They desorb from the surface.
Structural isomers definition
Same molecular formula, but a different structural formula
Stereoisomers definition
Same molecular, and structural formula, but a different spacial arrangement
State two ways that the use of catalysts helps chemical companies to make their
processes more sustainable and less harmful to the environment.
Lower temperatures, lower pressures can be used.
Lower energy demand
Greater atom economy, so less waste, less use of toxic reactants
When drawing isomers from a peak on a mass spectrum
make sure to put charges (usually +)
State and explain the features of a hex-2-ene molecule that lead to E and Z isomers.
(carbon-carbon) double bond does not rotate
OR has restricted rotation
Each carbon atom of the double bond attached to (two)
different groups/atoms
With E=mc Change in T questions…
if they ever give you a density, then you should ALWAYS ALWAYS ALWAYS USE THE VOLUME TO CALCULATE THE MASS!!!
dm3 to m3
multiply by 10^ -3
Difference between pi-bonds and sigma bonds
Sigma bond is between bonding atoms/nuclei AND pi- bond is above and below the bonding atoms/nuclei.
sigma bond has direct/head-on overlap of orbitals AND pi- bond has sideways overlap. sigma bond has a lower bond enthalpy / is weaker than a pi-bond.
Sigma bond has electron density between bonding atoms AND Pi- bond has electron density above and below bonding atoms
When drawing OH bonds
never make it a horizontal OH bond!!
When naming isomers
make sure to put the Z/E in front of the isomer.
What is the formulae of vinegar?
CH3COOH
During a titration:
Suggest one assumption that the student has made that might mean that their calculated
concentration of ethanoic acid in the vinegar is invalid.
Predict, with a reason, how the experimental result would differ from the actual
concentration of CH3COOH if the assumption were not correct.
That the vinegar is pure, and contains no other acids. Otherwise the result would be greater.
Whenever calculating the Kc
always multiply the concentrations.
And it’s products/ reactants.
In any transition element questions
The 4S ELECTRONS ARE LOST FIRST!
How to calculate the EMF of a cell?
Reduction value - oxidation value.
Advantages of using fuel cells rather than fossil fuels
Only water is created- so there are no toxic products.
Has a greater efficiency
Disadvantages of using fuel cells rather than fossil fuels
H2 is difficult to store
H2 is difficult to manufacture initially.
Define the term “standard electrode potential”
The EMF of an electrochemical cell comprising a half cell combined with a standard hydrogen electrode at 1 atm, 298K, and all solutions at 1 moldm-3
Complete the diagram to show how the standard electrode potential of xyz can be measured.
Draw 2 half cells, connected by a salt bridge. In one, put a beaker thing with Hydrogen feeder inside it. That solution should be labelled as 1 moldm-3 H+ (aq). Put inside the hydrogen feeder, a platinum electrode.
In the other half cell, put in the normal electrode (AND LABEL THE IONS AND ELECTRODES!! WITH STATES!)
Connect the electrode together using a voltmeter.
Give one use for Chromium
Used for stainless steel because it can resist corrosion.
How to determine which half cell is reduction or oxidation?
Whichever is more positive is the reduction.
YOU HAVE TO SAY MORE POSITIVE!!! NOT HIGHER!!!
What are standard conditions for a electrochemical cell
Temperature of 298K, solutions at 1 moldm-3, and 100kPa pressure.
If they ask you about the oxidising ability of a specific chemical
Say that it’s EMF is more positive than the others, so it is a better oxidising agent.
When labelling an electrochemical diagram
PUT ALL IONS AND THEIR STATES!!!
it costs marks.
If they ask you what is oxidised and what is reduced
You have to say that xyz ION is oxidised, and xyz ION is reduced.
What colour is an acid on the pH scale?
Red
What colour is an alkali on the pH scale?
Violet/ blue
What colour is neutral on the pH scale?
Green
What is an aromatic compound?
They have a benzene ring in it.
What is an aliphatic compound?
No benzene ring.
When writing the equation of formation
The reactants are the elements itself, ALONE. You can’t have NaCl, but you can have Na + Cl2.
Hess’s law
The enthalpy change of any chemical change is independent of the route by which the chemical reaction occurs.
Equation for chlorine + NaOH to form bleach
2NaOH + Cl2 -> NaCl + NaClO + H20
Conditions: cold and dilute NaOH.
Equation for glucose + yeast:
C6H12 O6 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Has to occur in anaerobic conditions and betwen 20-45 degrees.