Just everything Flashcards
1
Q
Conformity definition
A
Tendency to change what we do think or say in response to influence of real or imagined pressure from others
2
Q
Types of conformity
A
- compliance
- identification
- internalisation
3
Q
Compliance definition
A
- person changes their public behaviour but not private beliefs
- short term change
- result of NSI
4
Q
Identification definition
A
- person changes public behaviour and private beliefs but only in presence of group
- short term change
- often result of NSI
5
Q
Internalisation
A
- person changes their public behaviour and private beliefs
- long term change
- result of ISI
6
Q
Two explanations of conformity
A
- normative social influence
- informational social influence
7
Q
NSI definition
A
- person conforms to be accepted or belong to a group
- fit in with the norm
8
Q
ISI definition
A
- person conforms because they believe the majority to be right
- result of a desire to be right
9
Q
Jenness study aim
A
-to examine whether individuals will change opinion in an ambiguous situation in response to group discussion
10
Q
Jenness study procedure
A
- glass bottle filled with 811 white beans
- sample 26 students
- individually estimated beans in bottle
- participants divided in 3 groups and had to give group estimate
- given another opportunity to individually estimate
11
Q
Jenness study findings
A
- nearly all participants changed their original answer
- on average male pps changed answer by 382 beans
- range of group went from 1875 to 474
- decrease of 75%
12
Q
Jenness study conclusion
A
- results suggest individuals who changed initial estimate due to ISI believed group estimates were more likely to be correct than their own.
13
Q
Variables affecting conformity
A
- group size
- unanimity
- task difficulty
14
Q
Variables affecting conformity aschs study aim
A
- to demonstrate the power of conformity in groups
15
Q
Variables affecting conformity aschs study procedure
A
- used lab experiment
- individual pps seated with confederates
- asked to judge lines of different lengths and match one to standard line
- on 12 of 18 trials confederates were told to give wrong answer
- each person said aloud which line was most like comparison line
- answer was always obvious
16
Q
Variables affecting conformity aschs study findings
A
- on critical trials average conformity rate was 33%
- 1/4 of pps never conformed
- 1 in 20 conformed on all 12 trials
- majority of people who conformed admitted conforming so to avoid disapproval from other group members
17
Q
Aschs variations group size findings
A
- a majority of above 2 helped conformity rates rise up to 30%
- 3 people is considered the optimal group size for conformity
18
Q
Aschs variations unanimity findings
A
- confederate gave correct answers conformity dropped to 5.5%
- confederate gave different wrong answer conformity dropped to 9%
19
Q
Aschs variations task difficulty findings
A
- task difficulty = smaller differences between lines
- conformity increased
20
Q
Conformity to social roles
A
- individual adopts a particular behaviour and belief while in a particular social situation
- eg teachers, students, parents
21
Q
Conformity to social roles zimbardo stanford prison experiment aim
A
- examine whether people would conform to social roles of prisoner or guard when placed in mock prison environment
22
Q
Conformity to social roles zimbardo stanford prison experiment procedure
A
- mock prison set up in Stanford uni
- male students randomly assigned to play either prisoner/guard
- prisoners wore smock uniform/ assigned an ID number
- guards given uniforms/clubs/whistles/sunglasses
- study planned to last 2wks
23
Q
Conformity to social roles zimbardo stanford prison experiment findings
A
- guards= tyrannical/ abusive towards prisoners
- made them do degrading activities
- all participants conformed to roles even when unaware of being watched
- 5 prisoners released early because of extreme reactions
- study ended after 6 days by intervention of Christina maslach
24
Q
BBC prison study reicher and haslam
Procedure
A
- male participants randomly assigned either prisoner/guard
- participants divided into groups of 3 with each person closely matched with other 2
- 1 was assigned guard the other 2 prisoners
25
Q
BBC prison study reicher and haslam
Findings
A
- participants didn’t conform to assigned roles
- prisoners worked collectively to challenge authority of guards
- guards were reluctant to impose authority on prisoners which led to collapse of prisoner guard system
26
Q
BBC prison study reicher and haslam argue…
A
- conformity to social roles isn’t automatic but is a matter of personal choice
27
Q
Situational variables affecting obedience
Obedience definition
A
- occurs when individual is faced with the choice of whether to obey a direct order from a person with higher status or defy them
28
Q
Milgrams study 1963
Aim
A
Researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person
29
Q
Milgrams study
Procedure
A
- involved series of different conditions each varying some aspect of situation
- drew lots but real pps always acted as ‘teacher’ and confederate as ‘learner’
- teacher tested learners ability to remember word pairs administering fake electric shocks for any errors which increased in 15volt increments
- one condition learner was in another room and stopped responding at 315volts & experimenter used ‘prods’ to keep teacher delivering shocks
30
Q
Milgrams study
Findings
A
- milgram asked various groups to predict how far participants would go before refusing to continue
- predictions included few would go beyond 150volts
- all participants went to at least 300volts with 12.5% stopping there
- 65% delivered max shock level 450volts
31
Q
Situational factors in obedience list
PUL
A
- proximity
- uniform
- location
32
Q
Milgrams proximity conditions
A
- learner in same room obedience dropped to 40%
- touch proximity condition obedience dropped to 30%
- experimenter absent condition obedience dropped to 21%
33
Q
Milgrams uniform
A
- uniforms influence obedience because they’re easily recognisable and convey power and authority
- bushman found people were more likely to obey a researcher in a police style uniform than dressed as a business executive
34
Q
Milgrams study location
A
- studies were conducted at Yale uni so participants had confidence in integrity of study
- made them more likely to obey
- when study was moved into run down offices obedience dropped to 48%
35
Q
Agentic state definition
A
- person doesn’t see themselves as responsible for their actions but attributes responsibility to someone else eg an authority figure
- when in agentic state individual is kept in it by binding factors eg fear of appearing rude by refusing to obey authority figure commands
36
Q
Agentic shift definition
A
- person may shift from an autonomous state where they feel responsible for their own actions to an agentic state
- by shifting responsibility onto authority figure, person doesn’t feel guilty about their actions
37
Q
Authoritarian personality definition
A
-distinct personality pattern characterised by strict adherence to conventional values & belief in absolute obedience of submission to authority
38
Q
Adorno et al authoritarian personality measurement
A
- developed F scale to measure different components that made up authoritarian personality
- people who scored high on F scale = grown up in authoritarian family (strong obedience)
39
Q
People with authoritarian personality are most likely to have…..
A
- rigid beliefs in conventional values
- general hostility towards other groups (minority)/ prejudice
- intolerance of ambiguity
- submissive attitude towards authority figures
- displacement
40
Q
Adorno states authoritarian personality has roots in childhood experienced so children who……
A
- receive a harsh upbringing
- little affection
- punishment from parents
41
Q
Authoritarian personality hostility….
A
- authoritarian personality causes a child to have hostility towards parents but it remains unconscious because the child is unwilling to admit hostility
- hostility is then displaced on to non threatening minority groups and appears in the form of prejudice
42
Q
Elms and milgram procedure…..
A
- follow up study from milgrams study
- 20 obedient and 20 disobedient pps
- pps completed a personality scale - the minnesota mulitphasic personality inventory ( MMPI) and F scale
- also asked questions about their uprbinging and their attitude to the experimenter abd the learner in milgrams study
43
Q
Elms and milgram findings….
A
- little difference between obedient and disobedient pps on MMPI scores
- higher levels of authoritarianism among obedient pps than disobedient pps
- obedient pps reported being less close to their fathers during childhood and saw the authority figure as more admirable than the learner
44
Q
Resistance to social influence - social support definition
A
- perception that a person has assistance available from other people within the group
- makes a person better able to remain independent in situations where they would be expected to conform or obey
- enables individuals to resist pressures to conform because it breaks the unanimity of majority
- disobedient peers act as role models on which a person can base their own behaviour eg resisting an order from an authority figure
45
Q
Locus of control definition
A
- a persons perception of personal control of their own behaviour
46
Q
Internal loc definition
A
- people with internal loc believe what happens to them is result of own ability & effort rather than influence of others
- less likely to rely on opinions of others = makes them less vulnerable to social influence
47
Q
External loc definition
A
- people with external loc believe what happens to them is determined by external factors eg influence of others or luck
- less likely to display independent behaviour
48
Q
Minority influence definition
A
- form of social influence where members of majority group change their beliefs or behaviours as a result of their exposure to persuasive minority
49
Q
Minority influence 3 factors for successful minorities
A
- consistency
- commitment
- flexibility
50
Q
Minority influence consistency
A
- overtime consistency in the minoritys views increase the amount of interest from other people
- consistency makes others rethink their own views
- this draws the attention of the majority group to the minority position
51
Q
Minority influence 2 types of consistency
A
- synchronic - people in the minority are all saying the same thing
- diachronic - they have been saying the same thing for a long time
52
Q
Minority influence commitment
A
- sometimes minorities engage in quite extreme activites to draw attention to their cause
- its important that these extreme activities are at some risk to the minority because this demonstrates commitment to the cause
- aka augmentation principle
53
Q
Minority influence flexibility
A
- sometimes the minority have to be willing to compromise with the majority in order for the social change to happen
54
Q
Minority influence moscovicis blue green study aim …..
A
- To investigate the effects of a consistent minority on a majority
55
Q
Minority influence moscovicis blue green study procedure…
A
- participants given eye tests to ensure they werent color-blind.
- placed 2 confederates together with 4 genuine participants
- shown 36 slides which were clearly different shades of blue & asked to state color of each slide out loud
- first part of experiment 2 confederates answered green for each of the 36 slides & totally consistent in responses
- second part of the experiment they answered green 24 times & blue 12 times and inconsistent
56
Q
Minority influence moscovicis blue green study findings …..
A
- one condition found consistent minority had an affect on majority (8.42%) compared to an inconsistent minority (only 1.25% said green).
- 32% of all participants judged the slide to be green at least once.
57
Q
Minority influence moscovicis blue green study conclusion
A
-Minorities can influence a majority, but not all the time & only when they behave in certain ways e.g. consistent behavior style
58
Q
Social influence processes in social change DCCAS
A
D - drawing attention to an issue C - cognitive conflict C - consistency A - augmentation principle S - snowball effect
59
Q
Social influence processes in social change drawing attention to an issue
A
- a minority can bring about social change by drawing attention to an issue eg suffragettes
60
Q
Social influence processes in social change cognitive conflict
A
- minority creates a conflict in the minds of majority between whats currently believed and what the minority believes eg only men can vote
61
Q
Social influence processes in social change augmentation principle
A
- if a minority suffers for its views its taken more seriously eg suffragettes risked imprisonment or even death
62
Q
Social influence processes in social change snowball effect
A
- minority influence initially had a small effect but this spreads more widely until it eventually leads to large scale social change eg after suffragettes actions the idea finally spread to the majority
63
Q
Social change through majority influence - intervention
A
- young adults misperceive the frequency with which a behaviour occurs among their peers
- social norms interventions communicate to a target population the actual norm concerning such behaviour in the hope that recipients will change their behaviour to bring it in line with the norm
- in montana the correction of misperceptions about the norm of drink driving led to a reduction in the frequency of this behaviour
64
Q
Topic 2 memory
Short and long term memory definitions
A
STM- involves an extremely limited number of items that humans are capable of keeping in their mind at one time
LTM- refers to the storage of info over an extended period
65
Q
Memory capacity definition + capacity for STM & LTM
A
- a measure of how much info can be held in memory
- stm = limited capacity store
- ltm= a potentially infinite capacity
66
Q
Memory duration definition + duration for STM + LTM
A
- a measure of how long a memory lasts before its no longer available
- stm= less than 18sec unless items are rehearsed
- ltm= potentially lasts forever
67
Q
Memory coding + coding for STM & LTM
A
-refers to the way in which info is changed so that it can be stored in memory
- stm = encoded acoustically
- ltm= encoded semantically
68
Q
Miller capacity study research
A
- capacity of STM can be assessed using digit span tests
- miller reviewed exisiting research and concluded that stm capacity was 7 +/- 2 items
- eg when dots were flashed on a screen pps were reasonably accurate with their recall when there were 7 dots but inaccurate with 15 dots
- miller also found people can recall 5 words as well as they can recall 5 letters, they do this by chunking
69
Q
Memory - chunking definition
A
- grouping sets of digits or letters into meaningful units
70
Q
Memory - duration studies
Peterson and peterson research
A
- found that pps were 90% correct in their recall of consonant sullables after 3sec
- only 2% correct after 18sec
71
Q
Memory- duration studies
Bahrick et al research
A
- found in photo recognition test pps could remember names of former classmates with 90% accuracy within 15yrs of graduation
- figure declined to 70% after 48yrs
- recall was about 60% accurate after 15yrs dropping to 30% after 48yrs
72
Q
Memory - coding studies
Baddeley research
A
- had 4 groups learn different word lists
A- acoustically similar
B - acoustically dissimilar
C - semantically similar
D - semantically dissimilar
- when stm was tested group A had the worst recall
- when ltm was tested 20 mins later group C had the worst recall
73
Q
MSM definition
A
- an explanation of memory based on 3 separate stores and how info is transferred between these stores
74
Q
MSM is made up of ….
A
- sensory memory
- stm
- ltm
75
Q
MSM structure aka how it works steps
A
- info in sm register is held at 5 senses
- only able to hold accurate images of sensory info momentarily but capacity of sensory is very large
- most info is lost as it receives no attention
- if attention is focused on one of sensory stores info is passed to stm
- info held in stm is used for immediate tasks eg working on maths problem
- stm= limited duration & decays rapidly unless rehearsed & new info entering stm pushes out current info
- eventually rehearsal can lead to info being transferred from stm to ltm
- info stored in ltm can be returned to stm by process of retrieval where it becomes available for use
76
Q
WMM definition
A
- an explanation of the memory used when working on a task
77
Q
WMM suggests what ….
A
- suggests one store for visual processing and a separate store for processing sounds
78
Q
WMM proposed stm is composed of 4 parts……
A
- central executive
- phonological loop
- visuo spatial sketchpad
- episodic buffer
79
Q
WMM - central executive definition
A
- directs attention to particular tasks by allocating the brains resources to one of the three slave systems
- drives the whole system and allocates data to subsystems, also deals with cognitive taks like mental arithmetic and problem solving
80
Q
WMM phonological loop definition
A
- deals with auditory info and preserves the order of info
- divided into the phonological store which holds the words heard and the articulatory process which allows for maintenance rehearsal of acoustic info
81
Q
WMM- visuo spatial sketchpad
A
- used for planning of spatial tasks & temporary storage of visual and/or spatial info
- contains the visual cache which stores info about visual items and the inner scribe which stores the arrangements of objects in the visual field
- stores and processes info in a visual or spatial form - used for navigation
82
Q
WMM - episodic buffer definition
A
- general store for both visual and acoustic info
- integrates info from the central executive, phonological loop and the visuo spatial sketchpad
- also sends info to ltm
- stores both visual and acoustic info and integrates it in order to constrict a mental episode of whats being experienced
83
Q
Types of ltm (EPS)
A
- episodic
- procedural
- semantic
84
Q
Ltm - episodic memory definition
A
- concerned with personal experience
- individuals unique memory of a specific event or events in which they were involved
85
Q
Ltm - episodic memories 3 elements ….
A
- details of the event
- context of the event
- emotions felt at the time eg traumatic event
86
Q
Ltm - procedural definition…..
A
- concerned with skills like knowing how to tie a shoelace
- remembering how to do something rather than knowing what to do
- typically acquired through repetition and practice
- were less aware of these memories as theyve become automatic
87
Q
WMM - semantic definition
A
- memories related to knowledge about the world
- shared by everyone instead of being personal experience
- related to things like function of objects or what behaviour is appropriate in a particular situation
- may also be repeated to abstract concepts like mathematics & language
88
Q
Explanations for forgetting interference
2 types of interference are…
A
- proactive
- retroactive
89
Q
Interference definition
A
- where one memory disturbs the ability to recall another
- might result in forgetting or distorting one or the other or both
- more likely to happen if memories are similar
90
Q
Proactive interference definition
A
- previously learned material interferes with current attempts to learn something leading to forgetting of current material
- previously learnt info interferes with new info you’re trying to store
91
Q
Retroactive interference definition
A
- learning something new interferes with previously learned material leading to that material being forgotten
- new memory interferes with older ones
92
Q
Interference studies
Proactive underwood
A
- analysed findings from a number of studies and found that participants were less able to learn word lists presented later in a sequence in comparison to those presented earlier on, showing of evidence of PI
- PI results from response competition between current and previously learned info at recall.
- the finding that the PI effect was greater in later lists is attributed to the increasing competition of multiple associations at recall
93
Q
Interference studies
Retroactive studies müller and pizecker
A
- first identified RI in a study where participants given an intervening task in between learning nonsense syllables and recalling them performed less well than those without the intervening task
94
Q
Interference studies
Retroactive studies McGeoch and McDonald
A
- showed that forgetting of original material is greater if the intervening items presented prior to recall are more similar to the original something that only RI rather than decay can explain
95
Q
Explanations for forgetting
Retrieval failure definition
A
- an explanation of forgetting based on the idea that we don’t have necessary cues to access the memory
- forgetting in LTM is mainly due to retrieval failure
96
Q
Cues definition
A
- a trigger of info that allows us to access a memory
97
Q
2 types of dependent forgetting
A
- context dependent
- state dependent
98
Q
Context dependent forgetting definition
A
- occurs when the environment during recall is different from the environment you were in when you were learning
- when the context is different it’s more difficult to retrieve info
99
Q
Godden and baddeley study
A
- divers learned a word list on land or underwater and were then tested on land or underwater
- the highest recall was when the initial context matched the recall environment
100
Q
State dependent forgetting definition
A
- occurs when your mood or physiological state during recall is different from the mood you were in when you were learning
- when these states are different it’s more difficult to retrieve info
101
Q
Goodwin et al study
A
- asked participants to remember a list of words when either drunk or sober and then recall the list after 24hrs when either drunk or sober
- recall was best when in the same state both times
102
Q
Eyewitness testimony EWT definition
A
- evidence provided in court by a person who witnessed a crime with a view to identifying the perpetrator
103
Q
Leading questions definition
A
- a question that suggests what answer is described or leads to the desired answer
- contains misleading pieces of info or wording
- usually closed questions
104
Q
Loftus and palmers experiment 1 procedure
A
- researchers showed 45 students 7 films of different traffic accidents
- after each film participants were given a questionnaire with a critical question containing one of 5 verbs:
- ‘how fast were the cars going when they - contacted/hit/bumped/collided/ smashed each other?’
105
Q
Loftus and palmers experiment 1 findings
A
- participants given the verb ‘smashed’ reported an average speed of 40.8mph
- participants given the verb ‘contacted’ reported an average speed of 31.8mph
106
Q
Loftus and palmers experiment 2 procedure
A
- participants were divided into 3 groups and shown a film of a car accident and again asked questions about speed.
- 1 week late they were asked a series of questions about the accident including the question:
- ‘ did you see any broken glass?’
- When there wasn’t any
107
Q
Loftus and palmers experiment 2
Findings
A
- leading question changed the actual memory some participants had for the event
- 32% of participants given the verb ‘ smashed’ reporting broken glass compared with 14% of those given the verb ‘hit’
108
Q
Misleading info post even discussion definition
A
- occurs when witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other so their ewt may become contaminated
- as they combine mis info from other witnesses with their own memories
109
Q
Gabbert et al study
A
- showed pairs of participants a different video of the same event so that each participant viewed unique items
- pairs were encouraged to discuss the event before individually recalling what they had witnessed
- 71% of these participants went on to mistakenly recall items acquired during their discussion
110
Q
Other post event discussion
Repeat interviewing - post event discussion
A
- each time an eyewitness is interviewed theres a possibility that comments from the interviewer will become incorporated into their own recollection of events
111
Q
LaRooy et al leading questions findings
A
- found when children are being interviewed about a crime an interviewer used leading questions and so alter individuals memory for events
112
Q
2 explanations as to why leading questions affect EWT
A
- response bias explanation
- substitution explanation
113
Q
Response bias explanation definition
A
- refers to our tendency to provide inaccurate or even false answers to self-report questions like surveys
114
Q
Substitution explanation
A
- the wording of a leading question actually changes a participants memory
115
Q
Accuracy of EWT - anxiety has a negative effect on memory
A
- anxiety creates physiological arousal in body which prevents us paying attention to important cues so recall is worse
116
Q
Accuracy of EWT - anxiety has a negative effect on memory loftus et al
A
- monitored eyewitness eye movements
- found the presence of a weapon caused attention to be drawn towards weapon itself and away from other things like a persons face
117
Q
The weapon focus effect
A
- where in violent crimes arousal may focus the witness on more central details of the attack
- eg weapon rather than the more peripheral details
118
Q
Weapon focus effect Johnson and Scott procedure
A
- participants heard an argument and saw a man carrying a pen covered in grease ( low anxiety condition) or a knife covered in blood ( high anxiety condition)
- they were later asked to identify the man from a set of photographs
119
Q
Weapon focus effect Johnson and Scott findings
A
- the mean accuracy was 49% in the low anxiety pen condition
- 33% in the knife condition supporting the idea of a weapon focus effect
120
Q
Anxiety has a positive effect on memory
A
- the stress of witnessing a crime or accident creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body
- fight or flight response is triggered which increases our alertness and improves our memory for events because we become more aware of cues in this situation
121
Q
Anxiety has a positive effect on memory
Studies Christianson and hubinette
A
- found better than 75% accurate recall in real witnesses to bank robberies
- witnesses who were most anxious had the best recall
122
Q
Anxiety has a positive effect on memory deffenbacher
A
- reviewed studies of the effects of anxiety on eyewitness accuracy and concluded that when anxiety is only moderate then accuracy is enhanced
- in conditions of extreme anxiety accuracy is reduced
123
Q
Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony - the cognitive interview
A
- cognitive interview- police technique for interviewing eyewitnesses to a crime
- encourages them to recreate the original context of the crime in order to increase accessibility of stored info through use of multiple retrieval strategies
124
Q
Cognitive interview stages
A
- report everything
- reinstatement of context
- change order
- change perspective
125
Q
Cognitive interview
Report everything
A
- witness is encouraged to report every single detail of the event even though it may seem irrelevant
- memories are interconnected so recollection of one memory may cue another memory
126
Q
Cognitive interview
Reinstatement of context
A
- witness is encouraged to mentally recreate the physical and psychological environment of the original incident
- the aim is to provide contextual and emotional cues to retrieve memories
127
Q
Cognitive interview
Change order
A
- interviewer tries alternative ways through the timeline of the incident
- eg by reversing the order in which the events occurred.
- the rationale is that this prevents pre-existing schema influencing recall
128
Q
Cognitive interview
Change perspective
A
- the witness is asked to recall the incident from multiple perspectives eg by imagining how it would have appeared to other people present
- this also disrupts the effect that schemas might have on recall
129
Q
Standard police interview
A
- involves the interviewer doing most of the talking, asking specific questions that require specific answers
- they may also ask leading questions that contaminate a witness’s memory
- these techniques disrupt the natural process of searching through memory, making memory retrieval inefficient
130
Q
Attachment definition
A
- an emotional bond between two people
- it’s a two way process that endures over time
- it leads to certain behaviours like clinging and proximity setting
- serves function of protecting an infant
131
Q
Reciprocity definition
A
- when an infant responds to the actions of another person in a form of turn taking the actions of one person being the primary caregiver elicits a response from the other being the infant
132
Q
Research to support reciprocity
Jaffe et al
A
- demonstrates that infants coordinated their actions with their caregiver which can be described as a non verbal conversation
133
Q
Research to support reciprocity
Brazelton
A
- thought that basic rhythm is important precursor to late communications
- the regularity of an infants signals allow the caregiver to anticipate the infants behaviour and respond accordingly
- sensitivity to infant behaviour is the foundation for later attachment between caregiver and infant
134
Q
Interactional synchronicity definition
A
- takes place when infants mirror actions or emotions of another person eg their facial expressions
135
Q
Research to support interactional synchronicity
Meltzoff and Moore observational research
A
- discovered infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures made by an adult model
- in a later study they found evidence of IS in babies as young as 3 days old
- suggesting that this type of imitative response is more likely to be innate rather than learned
136
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study
A
- carried out study of 60 infants in Glasgow
- longitudinal study where babies and mothers were studied every month for the first year and then again at 18mths
- infants were 5 to 23 wks old at the start and were studied until the age of 1 yr
- researchers then described the stages of attachment
- asocial
- indiscriminate
- discriminate
- multiple
137
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study asocial 0-6 weeks
A
- infant shows similar responses to objects and people
- at the end of the stage they display preference for faces and eyes
138
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study indiscriminate 6 weeks to 7 months
A
- infant enjoys human company over non human
- can distinguish between people but comforted equally by anyone
- don’t show stranger anxiety yet
139
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study discriminate stage 7 to 9 months
A
- shows preference for a single caregiver displaying separation and stranger anxiety
- infant looks to a particular person for security and protection
140
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study multiple stage 10months - onwards
A
- infant displays attachment towards several people eg parents , grandparents
- attachment are often structured in a hierarchy whereby an infant may have formed 3 attachments but one may be stronger than the other two
141
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study
Stranger and separation anxiety
Social referencing
A
- a diary was kept by the mother to examine the evidence for the development of attachment 3 measures were recorded:
- stranger anxiety
- separation anxiety
- social referencing
- stranger anxiety - response to the arrival of a stranger
- separation anxiety - distress level when separated from carer, degree of comfort needed in return
- social referencing - degree that child looks at carer to check how they should respond to something new aka secure base
142
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study findings
A
- results of the study indicated that attachments were most likely to form with those who responded accurately to the baby’s signals not the person they spent more time with - aka sensitive responsiveness
- intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly to their demands and interacted with their child
- infants who were weakly attached had mothers who failed to interact
- most important fact in forming attachments isn’t who feeds or changes the child but who plays and communicates with them
- sensitive responsiveness to the baby’s signals appeared to be the key to attachment
- at around 25- 32 weeks, 50% of the children showed separation anxiety towards their mothers expected of the discriminate stage
- by 40 weeks 80% of the children had a specific (discriminate) attachment 30% had started to form multiple attachments
143
Q
Attachment Schaffer and Emerson study conclusion
A
- results provided some support for Schaffer’s stages of attachment & suggest attachment develops through a series of stages across the first year of life
144
Q
The role of the father
Schaffer and Emerson and lamb
A
- Schaffer and Emerson found that fathers were less likely to be primary attachment figures than mothers
- lamb reported that there was little relationship between the amount of time fathers spend with their infants and infant - father attachment
145
Q
The role of the father
Biological reasons
A
- some researchers claim that men are simply not equipped to form an attachment
- biological reasons why fathers are less likely to be primary attachment figures
- eg oestrogen underlies caring behaviour in women & lack of oestrogen in men is why they’re unable to form a close attachment
146
Q
The role of the father cultural expectations
A
- cultural expectations and sex stereotypes affect male behaviour
- include belief that it’s feminine to be sensitive to others needs
147
Q
The role of the father role as playmate
Research heermann et al
A
- found men are less likely to be sensitive to infant cues
- other research frodi et al has shown there’s no difference in physiological responses of males & females to an infant crying
- some researchers argue fathers can demonstrate sensitive responsiveness & respond to the needs of their children and can form a strong emotional tie or bond as there’s evidence of males forming secure attachments with their children or sharing the role of primary attachment
- eg frank et al although biological and cultural factors may make this less likely
148
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Lorenz study aim
A
- to investigate the mechanisms of imprinting where the youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first large, moving object they meet
149
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Lorenz study method
A
- one clutch of goose eggs divided into two groups
- 1 left with the mother
- 2 placed in an incubator
- the first thing this batch saw when they hatched was Lorenz
- they soon started to follow him around= imprinting
150
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Lorenz study findings
A
- non incubator gosling started following their natural mother and the incubator goslings ignored their natural mother and followed Lorenz
- if goslings weren’t exposed to a moving object during a specific time period aka critical period the animals didn’t imprint
- imprinting is similar to attachment in that it binds the young to a caregiver
long lasting effects:
- imprinting is irreversible and long lasting
- sexual imprinting -later mates are chosen based upon the object they imprinted on
151
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Lorenz study conclusion
A
- results suggest imprinting is a form of attachment that’s exhibited by birds that typically leave the nest early whereby they imprint onto first large moving object they encounter after hatching
152
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Harlows study aim
A
- to demonstrate that attachment isn’t based on the feeding bond between mothers and infant as predicted by the learning theory
153
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Harlows study procedure
A
- Harlow created 2 wire mother surrogates. 1 of these surrogates was wrapped in soft cloth aka contact comfort and the other was a ‘ wire mother’
- a sample of 16 baby rhesus monkeys were used across the 4 caged conditions
1 condition - ‘wire mother’ dispensing milk and ‘cloth mother’ with no milk
2 condition - ‘ wire mother’ with no milk and cloth mother dispensing milk
3 condition - wire mother dispensing milk
4 condition - cloth mother dispensing milk
- measurements were made of the amount of time each infant spend with the 2 different mothers and of their responses when frightened
- to test for mother preference during periods of stress the monkeys were startled with loud noises and their responses recorded
154
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Harlows study findings
A
- all the motherless monkeys spent most time with the cloth covered mother surrogate whether she had milk or not and when frightens all clung to the cloth covered mother
- the motherless monkeys developed to be socially and sexual abnormal in their interactions with other monkeys
- if the motherless monkeys spent time with monkey ‘peers’ they could recover but only if this happened before they were 3 months old
155
Q
Animal studies of attachment
Harlows study conclusion
A
- baby rhesus monkeys appear to have an innate drive to seek contact comfort from their parent suggesting attachment is formed through an emotional need for security rather than food which is in contrast to learning theory explanation
- this contact comfort provided by the mother is associated by a higher willingness to explore their surroundings and lower levels of stress
156
Q
Explanations of attachment learning theory
A
- learning theory of attachment is a behaviourist explanation that suggests that attachments develop through classical and/or operant conditioning
- it’s sometimes referred to as the cupboard love theory as the infant attaches to the caregiver who provides the food
157
Q
Classical conditioning
A
- in classical conditioning food is the unconditioned stimulus (ucs) and pleasure is the unconditioned response (ucr)
- the caregiver is a neutral stimulus who produces no response
- they’re continually paired with the UCS she slowly becomes the associated with it until eventually the mother alone can produce pleasure
- mother is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) and produces a conditioned response (CR)
158
Q
Classical conditioning pavlov
A
- Pavlov created his theory of classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs by accident he found that he could create a paired association between a bell and food
159
Q
Classical conditioning Pavlov study procedure
A
- he presented the dogs with the sound of a bell= NS neutral stimulus
- he presented them with food and the dogs salivated
- the food= UCS
- salivation = UCR
- then he repeatedly presented the dogs with the sound of the bell first and then the food
- after a few repetitions the dogs salivated when they heard the sound of the bell
- the bell= CS
- salivation= CR
- Pavlov found that for associations to be made the two stimuli had to be presented close together in time eg a bell he called this the law of temporal contiguity
160
Q
Classical conditioning Pavlov study
Findings
A
- before conditioning
Food UCS ——> pleasure UCR
NS——> no response
NS + UCS = UCR
NS = CS ——> pleasure CR
161
Q
Classical conditioning definitions
A
- NS - an event that doesn’t produce a response
- UCS - an event that produces an innate unconditioned response
- UCR - an innate conditioned behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to a UCS
- CS - an event that produces a learned response
- CR - a learned behaviour that an organism produces when exposed to a CS
162
Q
Operant conditioning
A
- theory suggests learning is through reinforcement
- baby has to learn to form an attachment with its caregiver
- caregiver rewards baby by feeding him so they associate caregiver with the reward & repeats any action that brings her close
- food brings a feeling of pleasure = reward to the baby
- Food is the primary reinforcer
- by removing discomfort it reinforces the behaviour that led to its arrival
- but food doesn’t come without caregiver bringing it so the caregiver becomes the secondary reinforcer even without food the presence of mother reduced discomfort & brings a feeling of pleasure
- the baby will therefore repeat any action eg crying which brings the caregiver close
163
Q
Dollard and Miller suggested …
A
- suggested a hungry infant feels uncomfortable & this creates a drive to reduce discomfort
- any behaviour resulting in rewards is reinforced
- any behaviour that results in punishments isnt reinforced
- when infant is fed this discomfort is reduced & feeding produces feelings of pleasure aka positive reinforcement
- food is a primary reinforcer as it directly satisfies hunger
- caregiver is a secondary reinforcer as they’re associated with the primary reinforcer
- attachment occurs because child seeks person who can supply the reward
164
Q
Operant conditioning skinners study aim
A
- to analyse animal behaviour by detecting when an animal has performed a desired behaviour & then administering a reward thus determining how long it takes animal to learn to perform the behaviour
165
Q
Operant conditioning skinners study procedure
A
- used rats to study operant conditioning
- created the Skinner box
- Skinner box allowed complete control of the organisms environment the behaviours that were available to it & the reinforcement or punishment it would receive
- he investigated how the type of reinforcement or punishment given & the rate of reinforcement or punishment affected the rate of learning
- rat would be put in the box in which temperature light & noise could be kept constant
- on one wall of the box there would be a lever & a hopper that could deliver a food pellet to the animal when the lever was pressed
- rat would accidentally press the lever & receive a food pellet
- Skinner measured how frequently the rat pressed the lever over time
- frequency should indicate the strength of the conditioning of the behaviour
166
Q
Operant conditioning skinners study findings
A
- he identified terms such as reinforcement and punishment
- found different schedules of reinforcement had different effects on the speed of learning and extinction
- discovered the use of positive and negative reinforcement
167
Q
Schedules of reinforcement list
A
- continuous reinforcement
- fixed ratio reinforcement
- fixed interval reinforcement
- variable ratio reinforcement
- variable interval reinforcement
168
Q
Schedules of reinforcement def: continuous, fixed ratio and interval, variable ratio and interval
A
- continuous: animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs eg every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery us shut off
- response rate is slow
- fixed ratio: behaviour is reinforced only after the behaviour occurs a specified number of times eg reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses eg after every 5th response
- response rate is fast
- fixed interval: one reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made eg being paid by the hour
- response rate is medium
- variable ratio: behaviours reinforced after an unpredictable number of times eg gambling
- response rate is fast
- variable interval: providing one correct response has been made reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed eg on average every 5 mins
- eg a self employed person being paid at unpredictable times
- response rate is fast
169
Q
Operant conditioning skinners study conclusion
A
- operant conditioning can be used to change behaviour either using positive or negative reinforcement
170
Q
Definitions operant conditioning
Reinforcement
A
- a consequence that makes a behaviour more likely to occur
171
Q
Definitions operant conditioning
Punishment
A
- a consequence that makes a behaviour less likely to occur
172
Q
Definitions operant conditioning
Positive reinforcement
A
- a response or behaviour is strengthened by rewards leading to the repetition of desired behaviour
- eg Skinner box had a lever that when pushed released a food pellet so the rats learned to go to the lever after a few times of being put in the box in order to receive food they would repeat the action again and again
173
Q
Definitions operant conditioning negative reinforcement
A
- the termination of an unpleasant state following a response it strengthens behaviour because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience
- eg Skinner placed a rat in the box & subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort but when the lever was knocked the electric current would be switched off so rats learned to use the lever & the consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they would repeat the action again
174
Q
Definitions operant conditioning
Punishment
A
- opposite of reinforcement designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it its an aversive event that decreases the behaviour that it follows
- punishment works either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus
175
Q
Explanations of attachment: bowlbys theory
Theories of attachment
Evolutionary theory
A
- tendency to form attachments is innate
- tendency is present in both infants and mothers
176
Q
Explanations of attachment: bowlbys theory
Theories of attachment
Learning theories
A
- infants have no innate tendency to form attachments
- they learn attachments because of food
- attachment behaviour serves an important survival function: an infant who isn’t attached is less well protected attachments are adaptive
- parents must also be attached to their infants in order to ensure that the infants are cared for and survive
- infants who don’t have the opportunity to form an attachment during the critical period between brith and 2.5 years old seem to have difficulty forming attachments later on
177
Q
Explanations of attachment: bowlbys theory
Theories of attachment
Learning theories pt 2
Bowlby said ….
A
- bowlby said that if attachment didn’t happen the child would be damaged for life:
- socially
- emotionally
- intellectually
- physically
- attachment is determined by sensitivity ie infants who are most strongly attached are the ones whose mothers are most responsive and most accessible
178
Q
Social releasers
A
- babies have social releasers which unlock the innate tendency of adults to care for them
- social releasers are both:
- physical - features of the infant like smiling and having a baby face which elicit caregiving
- behavioural - eg crying, cooing
179
Q
Bowlby monotropy
A
- bowlby proposed that infants have one special emotional bond aka monotropy as well as many secondary attachments
- bowlby believed that infants form one very special attachment with their mother
- if the mother isn’t available the infant could bond with another adult mother substitute
180
Q
Bowlby internal working model
A
- through the monotropic attachment the infant would form an internal working model
- this is a special mental schema for relationships which enables them to influence the caregivers behaviour and acts as a template for future relationships so all the child’s future adult relationships will be based on this
181
Q
Bowlby continuity hypothesis
A
- proposes individuals who’re strongly attached in infancy continue to be socially & emotionally competent throughout childhood & adulthood compared to infants who aren’t strongly attached
182
Q
Ainsworths strange situation aim
A
- to study the relationship between an infant and it’s primary caregiver
183
Q
Ainsworths strange situation procedure
A
- consists of 8 episodes the key feature of these episodes is that the caregiver and the stranger alternately stay with the infant or leave
1- caregiver, infant & observer:
- mother and child enter playroom
- child explores the environment
2- caregiver and infant:
- caregiver sits and watches infant exploring and playing with toys
3- stranger, caregiver and infant:
- second female stranger enters the room, interacts with caregiver and then plays with infant
4- stranger and infant
- caregiver has left the room
- stranger interacts with child
5- caregiver and infant
- reunion
- caregiver returns greets and comforts the infant and then leaves again
6- infant alone
- infant left alone in the room
7- stranger and infant
- stranger enters and tries to interact with child
8- caregiver and infant
- caregiver returns, greets and picks up infant
- stranger leaves
- ainsworth observed how the infants behaved through a one way mirror during the episodes each lasting 3 mins
- observations of the behaviours were recorded:
- separation anxiety
- reunion behaviour
- exploration
- stranger anxiety
- observers recorded what the infant is doing every 15 secs using 5 behavioural categories with each item scored for intensity on a scale of 1 - 7
184
Q
Ainsworths strange situation findings
A
- found evidence of 3 different types of attachment
- secure - type b
- insecure avoidant - type a
- insecure resistant - type c
- secure -66%
- uses their mother as a ‘’ safe base’’ and were happy to explore the room when she was present
- showed distress through when she left and welcomed her back into the room setting back down fairly quickly
- wary of the stranger and treated them differently
- insecure avoidant- 22%
- keeping a distance and avoiding closeness
- didn’t orientate their behaviour towards their mother
- showed little distress on mother’s departure but didn’t seek comfort when they returned
- rejected strangers attempt to comfort
- insecure resistant - 12%
- expected the relationship to be difficult and alternated between seeking closeness and wanting distance
- very distressed at separation
- not easily comforted appeared angry and rejected mothers attempts to comfort them and acted similar towards the stranger
185
Q
Ainsworths strange situation conclusion
A
- each child reacted differently to both the stranger and their mother in different ways for each part of the study
186
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Van Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg study aim
A
- to look at the proportions of secure, insecure avoidant and insecure resistant attachments across a range of countries and within countries
187
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Van Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg study
Procedure
A
- conducted a meta analysis of the findings from 32 studies where the strange situation had been used
- involved over 2000 strange situation classifications in 8 different countries
188
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Van Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg study
Findings
A
- secure attachment = most common in all countries
- insecure avoidant= next most common
- insecure resistant= least common
- variations within countries were greater variation between countries
189
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Van Ijzendoorn and kroonenberg study
Conclusions
A
- secure attachment type is the norm in a wide range of cultures
- however cultural practices have an influence on attachment type
- presence of these cultural similarities supports the idea that secure attachment is best for healthy social and emotional development
190
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Definitions collectivist cultures
A
- emphasises family and work goals above individual needs and desires there’s a high degree of interdependence between people
191
Q
Cultural variations in attachment
Definitions individualistic culture
A
- emphasises personal independence and achievement at the expense of group goals resulting in a strong sense of competition
192
Q
Cultural similarities research support
Tronick et al
A
- studied an African tribe the Efe who live in extended groups
- despite differences in childbearing practices the infants at 6 months still showed one primary attachment
193
Q
Cultural differences research support
Grossman and grossman
A
- found higher levels of insecure attachment amongst German infants than in other cultures
- German culture involves keeping some interpersonal distance between parents and children
- means infants didn’t engage in proximity seeking behaviours in the strange situation and so appear to be insecurely attached
194
Q
Cultural differences research support
Takahashi
A
- found similar rates of secure attachment in Japanese infants to those found by ainsworth et al
- however the Japanese infants showed no evidence of insecure avoidant attachment and high rates of insecure resistant attachment
- in Japan infants rarely experience separation from their mothers which would explain why they were more distressed in the strange situation than their American counterparts
195
Q
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Maternal deprivation hypothesis
A
- deprivation from the caregiver during the critical period will have harmful effects on a child including:
- socially
- emotionally
- physically
- intellectually
- it emphasises the value of maternal care
- bowlby believed that children needed a warm intimate and continuous relationship with a mother
196
Q
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Critical period
A
- bowlby claims psychological damage is inevitable if a child is separated from the mother for an extended period without suitable substitute care within the first 30months of their lives
197
Q
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Privation
A
- occurs when there’s a failure to from an attachment to any individual
- privated children don’t show distress when separated from a familiar figure which indicates a lack of attachment
198
Q
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Deprivation
A
- an attachment between child & the caregiver is broken
- refers to loss of emotional care that’s normally provided by a primary caregiver
- bowlby suggested the long term consequences of deprivation was emotional maladjustment or even mental health problems such as depression
199
Q
Bowlbys theory of maternal deprivation
Disruption of attachment
A
- occurs when children have formed an attachment & are then separated from their attachment figure
- this could happen for reasons like death of the mother or by either of them being in hospital
200
Q
Case study maternal deprivation
Genie
A
- genie between 14 and 20 months was developmentally delayed as told by doctors
- father took it seriously deciding she was profoundly ‘retarded’
- subjected her to severe confinement and ritual ill treatment in an attempt to ‘protect’ her
- genie spent 12 years locked in bedroom during the day she was tied to a child’s potty chair in diapers: at night she was bound in a sleeping bag and placed in an enclosed crib with a cover made of metal screening
- father was abusive towards her if she spoke and didn’t allow his wife and son to speak to her
- genie was discovered at 13 she couldn’t stand erect and had a vocabulary of 20 words only understand her own name
- never reached any sort of normal cognitive or emotional development
201
Q
Bowlby juvenille thieves study
Aim
A
- to see if early separation from the primary caregiver was associated with behavioural disorders
202
Q
Bowlby juvenille thieves study
Method
A
- bowlby analysed case histories of 88 emotionally maladjusted children from 5-16 years who had been referred to a guidance clinic and were examined
- 44 of the children were criminals- (stealing)
- 44 of non criminal participants were used as a control group
- bowlby interviewed the children and their families to create a record of early life experiences
- bowlby suggested 14 of the ‘thieves’ were affection-less psychopaths - they lacked normal signs of affection shame or sense or responsibility
203
Q
Bowlby juvenille thieves study
Findings
A
- bowlby identified 14 of the 44 thieves as affectionless psychopaths
- 86% of these affectionless psychopaths had experienced early and prolonged deprivation
- 17% of the ‘ other thieves’ had experienced such separations
- 4% of the control group had experienced frequent early separations
204
Q
Bowlby juvenille thieves study
Conclusion
A
- findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment
- maternal deprivation hypothesis appears to lead to affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour
205
Q
Maternal deprivation physical and emotional separation
A
- deprivation also includes emotional separation
- a parent may not able to provide emotional care therefore depriving the child of that care
206
Q
Maternal deprivation
Support Marian radke yarrow
A
- studied mothers who were severely depressed and found that 55% of their children was insecurely attached compared with 29% in the non-depressed group
207
Q
Maternal deprivation
Support for long term effects Antonia bilfulco et al
A
- studied women who had experienced separation from mothers either from maternal death or temporary separation of more than a year
- found 25% later experienced depression or an anxiety disorder
- 15% who had no experience of separation
- mental health problems greater for those women who experienced separation before 6 supporting bowlbys critical period
- shows maternal deprivation can make individuals vulnerable to later effects
208
Q
Romanian orphan studies : effects of institutionalisation
Rutter and Songua - barke
Aim
A
- to examine the long term effects of institutionalisation in a longitudinal study beginning in the early 90s called the ERA (English and Romanian adoptees)
209
Q
Romanian orphan studies : effects of institutionalisation
Rutter and Songua - barke
Method
A
- 165 children who had spent their early years in a Romanian orphanage formed the experimental group
- 111 of these children were adopted before the age of 2 while the remaining 54 were adopted by the age of 4
- they were compared to a control group of 52 British children who were adopted before they were 6 months
- the social, cognitive and physical development of all infants was examined at regular intervals (age 4,6,11 and 15) and interviews were conducted with adoptive parents and teaches
210
Q
Romanian orphan studies : effects of institutionalisation
Rutter and Songua - barke
Results
A
- at the point of adoption the Romanian orphans showed delayed development on all elements of social, cognitive and physical progress
- they were physically smaller, weighed less on average and many were classified as mentally retarded
- almost all the Romanian orphans who were adopted before the age of 6 months caught up on these measures of development when compared to the British control group
- the Romanian children who were adopted after 6 months continued to show significant deficits in terms of social, cognitive and physical development
- they were more likely to experience difficulties with making or maintaining peer relationships and were often categorised as having disinhibited attachment disorder
211
Q
Romanian orphan studies : effects of institutionalisation
Rutter and Songua - barke
Conclusion
A
- institutionalisation can have severe long term effects on development especially if children aren’t provided with adequate emotional caregiving ie adopted by 2years
212
Q
effects of institutionalisation
Rutter et al study
Aim
A
- to see if good quality care can make up for poor quality institutional experiences
213
Q
effects of institutionalisation
Rutter et al study
Method
A
- studied 111 Romanian orphans adopted by British families before 2 years
- natural experiment
- age of adoption was the naturally occurring IV
- adopted before the age of 6 months
- between 6 months-2 years
- after the age of 2 (later adoptees)
214
Q
effects of institutionalisation
Rutter et al study
Results
A
- disinhibited attachment behaviour if adopted after 6 months old
- children adopted before the age of 6 months rarely displayed disinhibited attachment
215
Q
effects of institutionalisation
Rutter et al study
Conclusion
A
- more likely to recover if adopted into a caring environment at an earlier age
216
Q
Disinhibited attachment
A
- form of insecure attachment where children don’t discriminate between people they choose as attachment figures
- such children will treat near strangers with inappropriate familiarity and may be attention seeking
217
Q
The influence of early attachment
Internal working model
The Minnesota child parent study
A
- internal working model - an infant learns what relationships are and how partners in a relationship behave towards each other from experience
- this is used to predict the behaviour of other people in the future it also affects childhood friendships
- Minnesota child - parent study - found continuity between early secure attachment and later emotional and social competence - affects childhood friendships, parenting and mental health
218
Q
The influence of early attachment
Kerns found ….
A
- securely attached infants= more inclined to have good quality peer relationships during childhood
- infants with insecure attachment types are likely to have difficulties with making or maintaining friendships
219
Q
The influence of early attachment
Hazan and Schaver study
Aim
A
- wanted to see if there was a correlation between the infants attachment type & their future approach to romantic relationships
220
Q
The influence of early attachment
Hazan and Schaver study
Procedure
A
- placed a love quiz in newspaper
- had 2 components: a measure of attachment type and a love experience questionnaire which assessed individuals beliefs about romantic love eg whether it lasted forever whether it could be found easily
- analysed 620 responses: 205 men 415 women
- people aged from 14-82
- classified respondents according to ainsworths attachment types:
- secure
- anxious resistant
- anxious avoidant
- secure described love experiences as happy, friendly and trusting
- able to accept their partner regardless of any faults
- happy depending on others and comfortable if others are dependent on them were happy to be close to others
- anxious resistant- experienced love as involving obsession a desire for reciprocation, emotional highs & lows, extreme sexual attraction & jealousy
- worry that partners didn’t love them or might abandon them
- desire for intense closeness could frighten others away
- anxious avoidant- typically feared intimacy
- emotional highs and lows and jealousy and believed they didn’t need love to be happy
- were uncomfortable being close to and/or depending on others
221
Q
The influence of early attachment
Hazan and Schaver study
Findings
A
- found a strikingly high correlation between the infant attachement types and the adult romantic love styles
- 56%= secure
- 25% = avoidant
- 19%= resistant
222
Q
The influence of early attachment
Hazan and Schaver study
Conclusion
A
- concluded there was evidence to support the concept of internal working model having a life long effect.
- Did concede not everyone stayed true to their infant attachment style & some people did change as they grew older
223
Q
Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality list
A
- statistical infrequency
- deviation from social norms
- failure to function adequately
- deviation from ideal mental health
224
Q
Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality
Statistical infrequency definition
A
- argues behaviours that are statistically rare should be seen as abnormal
- what’s regarded as statistically rare depends on normal distribution: most people will be around the mean for the behaviour in question with declining amounts of people away from the mean
- any individual who falls outside ‘the normal distribution’ - usually about 5% of the population are perceived as being abnormal
225
Q
Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality
Statistical infrequency example
A
- intellectual ability - approximately 65% of adults in uk would have an IQ score 85 & 115
- considered to be normal as it is what most people score
- only 2% of sample would have scores that fall at either extreme of the normal distribution curve ie there would be 2% with a very low score and 2% with a very high score
- both ends of the spectrum would be considered abnormal because so few people achieve these scores
226
Q
Psychopathology
Definitions of abnormality
Deviation from social norms definition
A
- each society has norms for what is seen as acceptable behaviour
- any behaviour that varies from these norms may be seen as abnormal
- definition draws a line between socially desirable & undesirable behaviours
- those who don’t adhere to what society deems as acceptable in that community or society are labelled as abnormal
