A01 Biopsychology and research methods

Question 1

A01

Neurons and synaptic transmission

Answer 1

the structure and function of neurons
-neurons are cells specialised to carry info throughout the body. They consist of a cell body, dendrites and an axon. The axon is covered in an insulating layer called the myelin sheath which allows nerve impulses to travel along it more rapidly
-neurons receive a signal via their dendrites from other neurons or form sensory receptors and pass it on via their axon. Nerve impulses travel along the axon in the form of an electrical signal called an action potential
-sensory neurons carry nerve impulses from sensory receptors to the spinal cord and the brain CNS
-relay neurons connect sensory and motor neurons and are found in the CNS. They are also known as interneurons.
-motor neurons are located in the PNS and have long axons which carry nerve impulses to muscles triggering muscle contraction
Synaptic transmission
-in synaptic transmission the nerve impulse crosses the synapse between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron with the help of neurotransmitters
-the arrival of an action potential at the end of an axon triggers the release of neurotransmitter molecules from synaptic vesicles into the synaptic gap by exocytosis
-these neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across the gap and bind to specialised receptors in the membrane of the postsynaptic neuron where they trigger a new action potential
-neurotransmitters are removed from the synaptic gap by reuptake into the presynaptic neuron for recycling or they may be broken down by enzymes. Some drugs affect the rate of reuptake or breakdown of neurotransmitters eg SSRIs affect the reuptake of serotonin
Excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters
-neurotransmitters can have different effects when they bind to the receptor on the postsynaptic neuron. The total effect determines whether an impulse is produced in the next neuron
-excitatory neurotransmitters cause an excitatory postsynaptic potential EPSP making the postsynaptic neuron more likely to fire. They include acetylcholine and noradrenaline
- inhibitory neurotransmitters cause an inhibitory postsynaptic potential IPSP making the postsynaptic neuron less likely to fire. They include serotonin and GABA
-the summation of EPSP and IPSP inputs determines whether or not an action potential is produced or how frequently the neuron will fire

Question 2

A01

Endocrine system

Answer 2

Glands and hormones
-endocrine glands produce & secrete hormones into bloodstream. Each gland in endocrine system produces specific hormones
-hormones are bodys chemical messengers. Theyre released by endocrine glands into bloodstream where they circulate around whole body
- bind to specific receptor molecules on surface of target cells stimulating response in target cells.
Pituitary gland
- pituitary gland is controlled by hypothalamus which regulates many body functions. pituitary releases hormones which control many other endocrine glands
- anterior pituitary releases adrenocorticotrophic hormone ACTH as response to stress & also produces luteinising hormone LH & follicle stimulating hormone FSH
-pituitary hormones have different effects in males & females in females LH & FSH stimulate ovaries to produce oestrogen & progresterone whereas in males they stimulate testes to produce testosterone & sperm
- Posterior pituitary release oxytocin. females this stimulates contraction of uterus in childbirth & involved in mother infant bonding. males oxytocin plays role in sexual behaviour & in reduction of anxiety
adrenal glands
- adrenal glands sit on top of kidneys. adrenal cortex produces cortisol which regulates important cardiovascular functions in the body. The adrenal medulla releases adrenaline and noradrenaline which prepare the body for fight or flight
-cortisol production is increased in response to stress. If cortisol level is low the individual has low blood pressure poor immune function and an ability to deal with stress
-adrenaline helps the body to respond to acute stress by increasing heart rate and blood flow to the muscles and brain and encouraging the breakdown of glycogen into glucose to provide energy
-noradrenaline constricts the blood vessels causing blood pressure to increase
Hormone regulation
-glands and hormones are self regulated by negative feedback homeostasis
-eg the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin releasing hormone CRH this stimulates the pituitary to release ACTH this in turn stimulates the release of hormones from the adrenal cortex such as cortisol. An increase in the blood conecnetration of cortisol slows down the release of CRH and ACTH this ensures levels of hormones circulating in the blood are kept stable
A03
The feeback system may break down in long term stress
-the hypothalamus and pituitary gland have special receptors that monitor circulating cortisol levels
-monitoring and controlling cortisol levels limits the potentially damaging effecrs of this hormone on the body. However research has found that the longer an individual is exposed to stress the more adverse the effects are
-this might explain why indivuals in stressful jobs or stressful relationships suffer more stress related illness.

Question 3

A01 the experimental method

Answer 3

-psycholgical investigations begin with aim which may be an inention eg to investigate the effect of tv on the work a student produces or a research question eg does noise affect the quality of work
-the IV is directly manipulated by the experimenter. The different values of the IV are known as the experimental conditions
-the DV is measured to see how the change in the IV has affected it. In an experiment the IV is deliberately changed to see if there is any effect on the DV. This permits us to draw causal conclusions- conclusions about cause and affect
issues and debates
- determinism scientific determinism allows researchers to draw conclusions from experiments
-this leads to a hypothesis a testable statement of what you expect to find. A good hypothesis includes the two or more levels of the IV eg students who do a memory task with the tv on produce work that gets fewer marks than those who do the same task without the TV on.
The hypothesis should be fully operationalised ie the variables should be defined in way that they can be easily measured or tested. A concept such as educationali attainment needs to be specified nmore clearly if we are going to investigate it. For example it might be operationalised as GCSE grade in maths.
-standardised procedures ernsure that each participant does exactlty the same thing withbin each condtition in order that the study can be repeated. They may include standardised instructions- the instructions given to particpants to tell them how to perform the task
-extraneous variables- EVs should be identified and controlled before the expriement begins. These are any variables other than the IV itself which may potentially affect the DV if EVs are not controlled they may become confounding variables which affect the validity of the findings
-the procedure should also include consideration of ethical issues and how to deal with them.
-research question aim hypothesis procedure findings conclusions

Question 4

A01 control of variables

Answer 4

• there is a trade of between control and realism in psychological research
• lab experiments have the greatest control and allow conclusions about cause and effect relationships but findings in this artificial context may not be generalizable to real life situations. They may lack mundane realism so the results may not apply to behaviour in the real world
• however studies in everyday settings lack control of extraneous variables so the findings may be meaningless. Uncontrolled extraneous variables may affect the DV in an experiment become confounding variables. These could include factors like time of fay noise and distractions
• researchers hope to be able to generalise the findings of a study beyond the research setting. Generalisability may be limited if aspects of the study lack realism for example the materials used in the study the environment of the study particularly if participants are aware they are being studied the sample of participants
• validity refers to whether an observed effect is a genuine one
• internal validity- is the degree to which an observed effect was due to experimental manipulation other than factors such as the confounding/ extraneous variables
• external validity is the extent to which the findings from particular research participants can be generalised to other people and situations
• ecological validity- can the research findings be generalised to everyday life
• population validity- can the findings from this sample of participants be generalised to all people
• historical validity-can the results of an old study be generalised to peoples behaviour today.

Question 5

A01 return to hypotheses and other things

Answer 5

Directional and non directional hypotheses
-a directional hypothesis states the expected direction of the results for example people who get an average of eight hours or more of sleep per night achieve higher marks in class tests than those who get fewer than eight of hours sleep
-a directional hypothesis can be used when past research (theory or studies) suggests that the findings will go in a particular direction if there is no relevant past research or findings are contradictory then a non directional hypothesis should be used. A non directional hypothesis states there is a difference between the two conditions but does not state the direction of the difference
-Lack of sleep affects performance in class tests
-to fully operationalise these hypotheses an operationalised IV and DV should be used in each case eg an average of eight hours or more sleep per night Iv higher marks in class tests DV
A few other things
-a pilot study is a small scale trial run of research design to check all aspects of the procedure and change some if necessary these could include
-the instructions to participants- are they clear- did participants understand what they had to do
-the timings too long or too short
-the materials used did participants have any difficulties understanding them- were there too many tasks or questions leading to boredom or fatigue
-whether participants had guessed the purpose of the study
-if a researcher tries out the research design using a few typical participants they can see what needs to be adjusted without having invested large amounts of time and money in a full scale study
-the results of a plot study are irrelevant. However carrying out a pilot study and making appropriate changes to the procedure can improve the validity and reliability of the main studys findings
-sometimes a researcher has to use another person to play a role in an investigation. They are part of the research set up rather than being a participant for example milgrams study on obedience used confederates to play the roles of the experimenter and the learner. In aschs study on conformity the confederates pretended to be other participants.

Question 6

A01 experimental design

Answer 6

• in a repeated measures design every participant carries out each condition of the experiment all levels of the IV. The performance DV each participant on the two tests can be compared
• to deal with order effects in a repeated measures design researchers can use counterbalancing to ensure that each condition is tested first or second in equal amounts
• for example half of the participants carry out condition a then b and the other half do b then a alternatively all particpants take part in each condition twice ABBA
• in an independent groups design each group of participants does one condition of the experiment and the performance of the two groups is compared
• participants should be randomly allocated to the conditions in order to distribute participant variables evenly so they do not become confounding. In a matched pairs design two groups of participants are used but pairs are matched on key characteristics believed to affect performance on the DV. For example age or gender may be relevant to some studies but this decision must be based on evidence
• for each matched pair one member is randomly allocated to each condition

Question 7

A03 experimental design

Answer 7

Limitations of repeated measures design

• order effects such as practice (that may improve performance) boredom or fatigue effects (that may worsen performance)
• participants may also guess the purpose of the experiment affecting their performance in the second condition
• researchers may use two different but equivalent tests to reduce practice effects. Counterbalancing is the main way of dealing with order effects. A cover story can help to prevent participants guessing the aims of the study

Limitations of independent groups design

• participant variables (individual differences) cannot be controlled and are a confounding variable
• in addition more participants are required than a repeated measures design
• randomly allocating participants to conditions help to distribute participant variables evenly (in theory)

Limitations of matched pairs design
-it is very time consuming and difficult to match people on key variables and requires participants to be selected from a large pool
-also only known variables can be matched and there are likely to be other relevant variables that were not known about but still affect the DV
-restricting the number of variables to match would make it easier. Researchers could conduct a pilot study to explore which key variables may be important to match
Strengths of each design
-the limitations of one design are often the strengths of another
-for example one limitation of repeated measures is that participants do better in the second condition because of a practice effect
-therefore one strength of independent measures ad matched pairs designs is that they avoid order effects because each participant does only one condition

Question 8

A01 lab and field experiments

Answer 8

• all experiments involve the manipulation of the IV while trying to keep all other variables constant so that the IVs effect s on the DV can be measured. We can then conclude that the change in the IV has caused the change in the DV.
• lab experiments are carried out in a special environment where variables can be controlled
• participants are aware that they are taking part in a study so they may alter their behaviour
• lab environment and the materials used may be quite unlike everyday life
• not all lab studies are lab experiments they could be observations natural experiments or quasi experiments
• field experiments are carried out in a more natural environment. The IV is still deliberately manipulated by the researcher
• participants are usually unaware that they are participating in an experiment so their behaviour may be more natural
• not all field studies are experiments the IV must be manipulated by the experimenter
• some experiments carried out in a lab environment but the purpose of the study is so well concealed that participants behave quite naturally so the study is more like a field experiment

Question 9

A03 lab and field experiments

Answer 9

Strengths and limitations of lab experiments
-they are high in internal validity because variables are tightly controlled so we can be more certain that any change in the DV is due to the IV
-however they have poor ecological validity. This is because the setting is low in mundane realism and the IV or DV may be operationalised in ways that don’t represent everyday life.
-the participants know they are in a study so may alter their behaviour (demand characteristics)
Strengths and limitations of field experiment s
-they are in a more natural setting so participants are less likely to respond to cues in their environment
-however there is less control of extraneous variables. This means they may be lower in internal validity than a lab experiment

Question 10

A01 natural and quasi experiments

Answer 10

Natural experiment
-is conducted when it is not possible for ethical or practical reasons to deliberately manipulate an IV the IV is naturally occurring it may take place in a lab or in the natural environment
-the DV is measured but only tentative conclusions can be drawn about the IVs effect on the DV as the IV was not deliberately manipulated and participants were not randomly allocated to conditions
-an example is the study of the effect of institutionalisation on children in which the two groups were adopted before or after 6 months of age. The DV could be measured in a lab eg IQ or behaviour in the strange situation
Quasi experiment
-in a quasi experiment the IV is also naturally occurring- it is a naturally existing difference between people for example gender. Again causal conclusions must be tentative
-the IV could be measured by psychological testing for example groups of people with internal or external locus of control. This is a personal attribute of the individuals not something that was manipulated by researchers
-participants responses in a situation would then be the DV measured in the quasi experiment
Strengths of natural and quasi experiment
-natural experiments allow psychologists to research real problems
-for example the effects of a disaster on health where the IV already exists
-this gives high levels of mundane realism and ecological validity
Limitations of natural and quasi experiments
-the IV is not directly manipulated so we cant be sure that any change in the DV is caused by the IV
-also participants are not randomly allocated to conditions so there may be differences between groups of participants giving a confounding variables
-finally the sample may be unique so the findings cant be generalised to other groups and the study has low population validity

Question 11

A01

Demand characteristics

Answer 11

Demand characteristics
-participant effects refer to the behaviour of participants in response to an experimental situation
-demand characteristics are cues that make participants unconsciously aware of the aims of a study or help them work out what the researcher expects to find. The situation creates expectations and participants do not behave as they would usually
-participants generally want to be helpful and can therefore behave cooperatively. Some participants deliberately try to spoil an experiment the screw you effect. Thus demand characteristics may act as a confounding variable
Investigator effects
-investigator effects are any cues from an investigator that encourage certain behaviours in the participant and which might lead to a fulfilment of the investigators expectations
-for example investigators may be more encouraging to one group of participants or may ask leading questions
-investigator effects may act as a confounding variable. These may include direct effects (as a result of the investigator interacting with the participant) and indirect effects (as a consequence of the way the investigator designed the study)
-participant variables- are the characteristics of individual participants which act as extraneous variables in an independent group design such as age,intelligence and motivation. These variables can be controlled by a repeated measures or a matched pairs design (matching for relevant characteristics) these are not the same as participant effects
-situational variables are features of the research situation which may influence participants behaviour. They become confounding variables if they vary systematically with the IV for example all members of one group are tested in the morning and the second group in the afternoon.

Question 12

A03 Demand characteristics

Answer 12

Single blind designs can help to deal with demand characteristics
-in a single blind design the participant is not aware of the research aims or which condition of the experiment they are in
-this prevents the participant from responding to cues about the aims or expectations of the experiment
-this means they should behave more naturally improving the validity of the study
Double blind designs are even better at reducing demand characteristics
-in a double blind design both the participant and the person conducting the experiment are blind to the aims or hypotheses in this study
-ideally the person conducting the experiment will also be unaware of which particpants are in which group or condition
-this means that the investigator is less likely to produce cues linked to their expectations of what will happen in the study
Experimental realism also helps to reduce demand characteristics
-if the events appear natural and realistic the participant will behave more naturally
-if the participant is sufficiently engaged in the task they are not paying attention to the fact that they are being observed
-this means they are less likely to change their behaviour to fit the expectations of the experimenter.

Question 13

A01 self report techniques

Answer 13

Questionnaires

• predetermined set of written questions which can permit a researcher to find out what people think and feel
• they can be used to collect quantitative data which is then analysed using statistical tests or qualitative data which gives deeper insight into individuals experiences
• the questionnaire may provide data directly to answer a research question. Altenratively it may be part of an experimental study for example to identify two groups of particpants with different belief the IV in order to explore their responses the DV
• structured interviews – also have predetermined questions. The interviewer reads out the questions and the interviewer replies. There is no deviation from the written questions
• in an unstructured interview the interviewer may begin with general aims and a few starting questions but the conversation develops depending on the answers given

Question 14

A03 self report techniques

Answer 14

Self report techniques may lack validity
-researchers are trying to gain access to peoples thoughts, feelings and attitudes
-however people may not be able to express their thoughts clearly or may not be truthful
-this leads to a social desirability bias in the findings as people answer in a way which presents them in a good light
Questionnaires and interviews can both give biased data
-questioannaires can be used to collect data from a large sample of people and people may be more honest in them than in an interview
-however people who complete questionnaires may not be representative of the population as they have to have time and motivation
-on the other hand interviewers can influence the answers people give by unconscious non verbal signals giving interviewer bias
Dara from structured interviews is easier to analyse than from unstructured interviews
-unstructured interviews are similar to questionnaires and data from standardised questions can be analysed quite simply
-however in an unstructured interview the interviewer tailors the questions to specific responses so answers are harder to analyse
-but unstructured interviews allow researchers to obtain more detailed info and deeper insights into individuals feelings thoughts and experiences.

Question 15

A01 sampling

Answer 15

• the population is the wider group of individuals the researcher is interested in. from this population they select a smaller sample to study eg 20-30 participants ideally the sample will be representative of the population so that generalisations can be made
• opportunity sample people are recruited based on convenience or availability
• random sample each person in the population has an equal chance of being selected
• the lottery method- all names are written on slips of paper put in a hat and the number of names required are selected
• random number generators- everyone is given a number and the computer picks numbers randomly
• stratified sample- subgroups within the population are identified eg age groups or genders. Participants are obtained from each group in proportion to their occurrence in the population using random selection
• systematic sample-using a predetermined system to select participants such as every twentish person on a lot
• volunteer sample- advertisements are placed on the internet or on a noticeboard or in a newspaper and the study uses those who respond to this request
• bias is a distortion in the data. Biases in psychological research include experimenter bias interviewer bias, observer bias, social desirability bias and sampling bias
• sample bias- sample inevitably differs from the population and does not perfectly represent it
• volunteer bias occurs because volunteers are likely to differ from the population as they are willing an available to take part

Question 16

A03 sampling

Answer 16

more studies use opportunity or volunteer sampling
-these are the easiest methods and so take less time to find a sample than other methods
-however an opportunity sample is inevitably biased by who happened to be available at the time
-volunteer bias can also be a problem as participants may be highly motivated to take part and therefore differ from a typical member of the population
Random sampling is theoretically the least biased method
-all members of the population have an equal chance of being selected
-however it requires a list of names of all members of the population from which a random selection is recruited
-this is time consuming and some randomly selected people may refuse to take part resulting in a biased sample
Stratified sampling can be more representative than some methods
-this is because there is a proportional representation of subgroups
-however subgroups must be identified and participants randomly selected from subgroups then contacted
-this is very time consuming and people may not agree to participants giving a biased sample.

Question 17

A01 ethical issues

Answer 17

-are conflicts between what the researcher wants to do in order to conduct useful and meaningful research and the rights of participants. All research must be conducted in an ethically appropriate way including student research
-the british psychological society BPS identifies four ethical principles for researcher s
1 respect for the dignity of people
2 competence high standards of professional work
3 responsibility to clients and the public
4 integrity honest research and reporting
Informed consent
-means telling participants the true aim of a study and what is going to happen so they can make an informed decision about participating
-they should be aware of any potential risks or benefits although researchers cannot always predict the risks or benefits of taking part in a study
-researchers may not want to reveal the true aims of a study because it could change the way the participants behave
Deception can be necessary to avoid demand characteristics.. there is a difference between withholding some details of the research aims (acceptable) and deliberately giving false info (less acceptable)
-the issue is that deception can lead people to see psychologists as untrustworthy and contravenes the right to informed consent
-however much of the deception in research is minor and harmless and particpants would have little reason to refuse to take part
The right to withdraw
-is important if participants feel distressed during a study particularly if they were not fully informed
-participants should not lose any payments or rewards by withdrawing
-the problem is that if participants do leave during the study the sample will become biased as those who remain may be more compliant or hardy
Protection from harm
-research is considered acceptable if the risk or harm (physical or psychological) is no greater than a participant would be likely to experience in ordinary life and they leave the study in the same state in which they arrived
-however this is difficult to guarantee as studies addressing some important questions may involve a degree of distress or embarrassment or outcomes may be hard to predict
Confidentiality
-is a legal right for participants. Personal data can only be recorded in such a way that the participants cant be identified
-this can be difficult to protect as researchers wish to publish the findings. They can guarantee anonymity but it may be possible to identify details of participants from their particular characteristics in a small target population
Privacy
–people would not expect to be observed by others in certain situations such as in their own homes, whereas in public places eg a park being observed would not feel so invasive
-researchers may need to study participants without their awareness which could be seen as an invasion of privacy

Question 18

A01 dealing with ethical issues

Answer 18

the BPS code of ethics and conduct gives ethical guidelines on which behaviours are acceptable and how to deal with ethical dilemmas if a psychologist conducts unacceptable research the BPS may bar them from practising
-ethics committees in research institutions mist approve any study before it can go ahead after considering how researchers intend to deal with ethical issues
Dealing with specific ethical issues
-deception any deception must be approved by an ethics committee after a cost benefit analysis which attempts to judge the research in terms of its costs and benefits to the participants themselves and to society as a whole however cost benefit decisions are flawed because the outcomes are not evident until after the study
-informed consent particpants sign a consent form and are offered the right to withdraw. However if participants are given full info this may invalidate the study. Even if they have been fully informed do they really understand what they have agreed to
-presumptive consent- could be used instead. However presumptive consent assumes that people can imagine the scenario and their responses accurately which may not be the case
-debriefing participant must be fully debriefed and have the opportunity to discuss any concerns and withdraw their data. A problem could be that debriefing cant undo any harm to participants
-right to withdraw –participants should be informed at the beginning of the study that they can withdraw at any time without losing any benefits. However participants may feel they shoudlnt withdraw because it might spoil the study
-protection from harm- the study should be stopped if harm is suspected. However harm may only become apparent later
-confidentiality- researchers should use numbers or false names to protect participants confidentiality. However it may be possible to idenfity participants via details of location
-privacy- to protect privacy researchers should not study anyone without their informed consent unless it is public behaviour in a public place. A ,imitation is that its not universally agreed what constitutes a public place

Question 19

A03 dealing with ethical issues

Answer 19

Ethical guidelines
-the rules and sanctions approach has limitations as it is possible to cover every situation that might arise in research
-the Canadian approach instead encourages debate around hypothetical dilemmas
-this encourages psychologists to engage deeply with ethical issues rather than just following rules
Limitations of a cost benefit approach
-it is difiicult to predict the costs and benefits before a study or to quantify them afterwards
-diana baumrind argued that cost benefit analysis can legitimise unethical practices such as deception and harm if the benefits are seen to be great enough
-this means that cost benefit analysis simply exchanges one set of dilemmas for another

Question 20

A01 observational techniques

Answer 20

in a naturalistic observation behaviour is studied in a natural situation and the researcher does not interfere with what is happening

• in a controlled observation some aspects of the environment are organised by the researcher enabling them to investigate the effects of particular objects or situations on behaviour. For example ainsworths strange situation
• in an overt observation participants are aware that they are being observed. Researchers carrying out overt observation try to be as unobtrusive as possible and may be hidden behind a one way mirror
• a covert observation takes place without participants awareness. Knowing that behaviour is being observed is likely to alter the participants behaviour
• in non participant observation the observer watches from a distance and does not interact with participants
• in participant observation the observer joins the group being observed either overtly or covertly
• If two or more observers record behaviour then inter observer reliability can be calculated. More than 80% consistency between their data indicates a high level of reliability

Question 21

A03 observational techniques

Answer 21

Observational studies may have high validity
-they record people actual behaviour including any unexpected behaviour
-however its difficult for observers to be objective what they observe can be distorted by their expectations. Only observable behaviours are recorded not thoughts or motivations
-this means that observer bias and interpretation of behaviour can affect the internal validity of the findings
Naturalistic vs controlled observations
-naturalistic observations are high in ecological validity especially if participants are unaware that they are being observed
-however other variables are not controlled so may influence behaviour. On the other hand controlled observations enable control of the environment so observers can focus on specific behaviours
-however this is at the cost of ecological validity as the situation may feel unnatural to participants this leads to a trade off between ecological validity and control
Ethical issues arise in covert observations
-as participants are unaware they are being observed they cant give or withhold consent
-the researcher must take care not to invade peoples privacy while observing them
-the observer can sometimes seek retrospective consent but it is not always possible to follow up people who have been observed in a public place

Question 22

A01 observational design

Answer 22

-in controlled observations the researcher records all relevant behaviour but without an observational system. This may be useful in a novel situation to decide what behaviours could be more systematically recorded
-once researchers have decided which behaviours are relevant and observable they can plan a structured observation using behavioural categories and sampling procedures
-behavioural categories behaviours must be operationalised by breaking them down into categories which are
-objective- not requiring interpretation just recording explicit actions
-comprehensive- covering all possible component behaviours without an other box
-mutually exclusive-each behaviour must fit in only one category
Sampling procedures
-the observer should ideally record every instance of a behaviour. However if the behaviours are frequent this becomes impossible so sampling enables observers to calculate an estimate of the frequency of the behaviour
-event sampling- counting the number of terms a certain behaviour occurs in a target individual in a period of time. For example counting how many times a person smiles in ten minutes
-time sampling- noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds (or an appropriate time interval) by ticking behavioural categories on a checklist.

Question 23

A01 self report techniques

Answer 23

Questionnaires

• predetermined set of written questions which can permit a researcher to find out what people think and feel
• they can be used to collect quantitative data which is then analysed using statistical tests or qualitative data which gives deeper insight into individuals experiences
• the questionnaire may provide data directly to answer a research question. Altenratively it may be part of an experimental study for example to identify two groups of particpants with different belief the IV in order to explore their responses the DV
• structured interviews – also have predetermined questions. The interviewer reads out the questions and the interviewer replies. There is no deviation from the written questions
• in an unstructured interview the interviewer may begin with general aims and a few starting questions but the conversation develops depending on the answers given

Question 24

A03 self report techniques

Answer 24

Self report techniques may lack validity
-researchers are trying to gain access to peoples thoughts, feelings and attitudes
-however people may not be able to express their thoughts clearly or may not be truthful
-this leads to a social desirability bias in the findings as people answer in a way which presents them in a good light
Questionnaires and interviews can both give biased data
-questioannaires can be used to collect data from a large sample of people and people may be more honest in them than in an interview
-however people who complete questionnaires may not be representative of the population as they have to have time and motivation
-on the other hand interviewers can influence the answers people give by unconscious non verbal signals giving interviewer bias
Data from structured interviews is easier to analyse than from unstructured interviews
-unstructured interviews are similar to questionnaires and data from standardised questions can be analysed quite simply
-however in an unstructured interview the interviewer tailors the questions to specific responses so answers are harder to analyse
-but unstructured interviews allow researchers to obtain more detailed info and deeper insights into individuals feelings thoughts and experiences.

Question 25

A01 correlations

Answer 25

• a correlation is a systematic association between two continuous variables. A continuous variable can take on any value within a certain range and can be displayed on a regular numbered scale on a graph
• studies using correlational analysis aka as correlational studies. the results can be displayed on a scattergram where each point plotted shows the value of the two variables for one individual
• a correlational hypothesis states the expected association between the co-variables this could be ;
• a positive correlation- as one increases the other increases
• a negative correlation- as one increases the other decreases
• zero correlation-no association
• a non directional correlational hypothesis states that there is a relationship between the two variables without specifying the direction of the relationship
• a correlational coefficient is a number between -1 and +1 which tells us how closely the co variables are related. A perfect positive correlation would be +1 and a perfect negative correlation would be -1. A strong correlation has a correlation coefficient closer to +1 or -1 and a weak correlation is nearer to zero.
• the statistical significance of the correlation depends on the number of participants. This can be analysed using tables of significance.

Question 26

A03 correlations

Answer 26

Correlation can be used when it is not possible to manipulate a variable
-this contrasts with an experiment where the investigator manipulates the IV in order to observe the effect of the DV
-correlation can be used to investigate trends in data that may have been collected for another purpose
-this means that no conclusion can be made about one co-variable causing a change in another in a correlational study
Correlation does not imply causation
-there may be intervening variables that explain the association between the co variables. Alternatively the causal relationship may be the opposite of what it seems ie B causes A rather than A causes B
-for example a correlation between attendance and exam results may have other explanations such as personal circumstances or motivation to succeed. we can’t conclude that increasing attendance would improve results
-means that further investigation would need to be carried out to find out if the relationship is causal
Validity should still be considered in a correlational study
-issues such as the generalisability of the sample or the operationalisation of variables would affect external (population) validity and internal validity
-correlational studies can often be easily replicated so findings can be confirmed
-causality can be explored further using experimental or longitudinal methods
Correlations are not always linear
-linear correlations produce a scattergram with values lying on a straight line. However a curvilinear correlation is also possible
-this is a consistent relationship between two variables the nature of which changes as on variable increases for example the relationship between anxiety and accuracy of eyewitness testimony
-requires a different sort of statistical significance testing to see how closely the data fits a curve rather than a straight line.
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Question 27

A01 other research methods

Answer 27

-some studies don’t neatly fit any category of research methods but are simply investigations of particular situations for example milgrams study of obedience
-many published studies use a combination of research methods for example schaffer and emersons study of attachment used naturalistic observation, interviews and rating scales but also included an experimental element
-systematic review studies use databases of published research to search for studies addressing a particular aim or hypothesis
-a meta-analysis then assesses trends in the data and evaluates the effect size across all of the studies using statistical analysis
Other research methods
-a longitudinal study of an individual or group can observe long term effects such as treatment or ageing
-a cross sectional study compares groups at the same point in time for example 20 year olds and 50 year olds in 2015
- in cross cultural studies researchers compare samples from, different cultures ina kind of natural experiment for example the IV could be childrebearing practices in different cultures and the DV could be a particular behaviour such as attachment
-role play eg Zimbardos prison stimulation study is a form of controlled observation

Question 28

A03 other research methods

Answer 28

Meta analysis can increase the validity of conclusions

• conclusions are based on a wider sample of participants so and overall conclusion can be drawn even if the original studies produced contradictory results
• the research designs of the original studies may vary considerable so they may not be truly comparable
• conclusions should still be examined carefully for validity

Question 29

A01 Case studies

Answer 29

Case studies
-are the detailed study of a single individual institution or event
-many research methods may be used such as observation, interview of the person themselves or their family and friends psychological tests or experiments
-case studies are often longitudinal following an individual over an extended period of time
Content analysis
-is a form of indirect observation by analysing a sample of artefacts produced by people such as tv programmes articles adverts songs paintings
-it aims to systematically describe the content often tallying coding units themes or behavioural categories to transform qualitative into quantitative data
Issues and debates
-idiographic and nomothetic research

Question 30

A03 Case studies

Answer 30

Case studies provide rich in depth data relating to an individual or an event
-they are also valuable for investigating rare case or situations that could not be generated experimentally for ethical reasons
-case studies are often unique and data is gathered retrospectively eg after brain damage so we do not know what abnormalities were already present
-makes the findings difficult to generalise to other populations and other situations
Content analysis is based on observations of material produce by people in real life
-if these sources can also be accessed by other researchers then findings can be replicated
-but different observers may interpret the meanings of material and the behavioural categories or coding systems differently due to observer bias
-content analysis has high ecological validity but may lack reliability and internal validity

Question 31

A01 mathematical skills

Answer 31

Mathematical requirements in the specifications
-10% of the marks in the AS and A level exams are related to mathematical skills. These include arithmetic, handling data, simple algebra and graphs.
Some basic mathematical concepts
-a fraction expression part of a whole number for example if there are 120 participants in a study and 40 are in condition A this is 40/120 this can be simplified to 1/3 as the top and bottom of the fraction can be divided by 40
-a percentage is a fraction out of 100 so 5% means 5/100 or 1/20
- as a decimal would be 0.05
- to change a fraction to a percentage first divide the top by the bottom using a calculator to make a decimal then multiply by 100
-for example in an EWT experiment 13 participants matched a face correcryl and 27 did not.
-the total number of participants is 13+27=40
-13/40= 0.325=32.5%
-ratios show how much there is one thing compared to another thing
-for example if the ratio of insecurely (type A) to securely (type B) attached infants is 2;3 that means out of every 5 children 2 are type A and 3 are type B
-so out of 50 children there will be 20 type A and 30 type B
-it’s a good idea to estimate the result of a calculation to check your answer makes sense. You can do this by rounding and by checking whether a result should be smaller (if you have divided) or larger (if you have multiplied) than the starting numbers
-however if you multiply by a number less than 1 the result will be smaller
-for example 24x0.5=12
-you may be asked to round a number to 2 or 3 significant figures. The rest of the digits are then replaced by zeros. Consider to round up or down
-for example the fraction 19/36 is 52.7777777778% as a percentage
-this can be rounded to 52.8% to 3 significant figures (sf) or 53% to 2sf or even 50% to 1 sf
-with very large or very small numbers we can put them in a standard form. This enbales us to compare their order of magnitude
-for example 86000000000 is 8.6x10^9. The 9 represents how many places the number has moved in relation to the decimal point (we have divided by 10^9 or 1000000000)
-0.0045 is 45x10^23 as we have multiplied by 10^3 or 1000
-58 x 10^3 is less than 2.1 x10^4 because it is a lower order or magnitude (5.7x10^3) =5800 and 2.1 x10^4= 21000

Question 32

A01 measures of central tendency and dispersion NOIR

Answer 32

-quantitative data is numerical and can be summarised in terms of its central tendency and dispersion to identify trends in data. These are descriptive statistics
.measures of central tendency
-measures of central tendency are averages which describe the centre of a set of data
-mean- add up all the values and divide by the number of items
-median- rearrange the numbers in order and find the middle number. For an even number of items the median is the mean of the central two
-mode the most common data item or category a data set may be bi-modal
Measures of dispersion
-measures of dispersion describe the spread of the data
-the range is the difference between the top and bottom values in a data set plus one
-the standard deviation is the average distance of each data item from the mean
-levels of measurement NOIR
-n= nominal data is in categories that do not have any particular order eg grouping people by their favourite pet
O= ordinal data can be ranked in order by is not on a regular scale eg the order of preference of pets
I= interval data is measured used units of equal intervals eg temperature psychological scales can also be treated as interval data
R= ratio data relate to a true zero point eg age you don’t need to be able to identify this level as interval data includes ratio data

Question 33

A03 measures of central tendency and dispersion

Answer 33

The mean is the most sensitive measure of central tendency
-its takes into account all the data values
-it can be distorted by extreme values so may not represent the data in a skewed distribution
-the mean can only be used with ratio and interval level data
The median and the mode are less sensitive than the mean
-the median is not as sensitive as the mean because it ignores all the data except the middle
-the median isn’t affected by extreme scores and can be used for ordinal data and skewed distributions
-the mode is only used for nominal data and is therefore limited in its application to different forms of data
The standard deviation is a very sensitive measure of dispersion
-like the mean it takes into account all the data values but is also affected by extreme scores
-it is used with the mean as a way of describing the characteristics of interval data that are normally distributed
-the range has to be used if data is skewed or ordinal

Question 34

A01 display of quantitative data and data distributions

Answer 34

Display of quantitative data
-tables and graphs should have a short but informative title. Use operationalised variables as titles for columns in a table or axes on a graph
-tables can display raw data but they usually display summaries
-measures of central tendency and dispersion for the groups or conditions
Bar charts
-display discrete data that can take only certain values or nominal category data. The spaces between the bars indicate the lack of continuity of the IV which is on the horizontal axis. The vertical axis is for scores the DV or frequencies
-historgrams are used for continuous data data can be any measurement within a range and the bars should be touching. the vertical axis should start from zero.
-frequency polygons display the same data as frequency histograms but are better for comparing two or more sets of data as the bars are replaced by dots that are joined with a line
-line graphs have continuous data on both axes and can be used for time series
-scattergrams are used for correlational analysis
Data distributions
-the normal distribution is a symmetrical bell shaped curve. Many human characteristics are normally distributed such as height and intelligence
-mean, median and mode are all at the exact mid-point
-the dispersion of data follows a predictable pattern so that 68.26% of people fall within one standard deviation of the mean (half each side) only 4.56% are more than 2 standard deviations from the mean. This distribution underlies the concept of the statistical infrequency model of abnormality
-in a skewed distribution the scores are not distributed symmetrically around the mean
-in a positive skewed distribution a few high extreme high scores have a strong effect on the mean which will therefore be higher than the median and mode
- in a negative skewed distribution the bulk of the scores are high eg if an exam was too easy (a ceiling effect) but a few extreme low scores skew the mean to the left of the median and mode.

Question 35

A01 types of data

quantitative and qualitative data

Answer 35

quantitative and qualitative data
-quantitative data measures behaviour numerically
-it can be collected from measurement of the DV in an experiment or from closed questions in questionnaires and interviews
Qualitative data
-is non numerical data such as words, pictures or videos
-it comes from open questions, descriptions of behaviour and collected material such as articles, books, photos and web forum discussions
-quantitative data can be turned into quantitative data by tallying behavioural categories in an observational study or coding categories in a content analysis
Issues and debates
-idiographic and nomothetic approaches in psychology
Primary and secondary data
Primary data is collected directly first hand by the researcher specifically to address the aims and hypothesis of the study
-primary data can be collected using a research method such as an experiment, observation or questionnaire
-the researcher designs the study gains ethical approval pilots the study recruits and tests participants analyses the data and draws conclusions
Secondary data
-is info gathered for a different purpose or by another researcher
- it could include government statistics or health records
-secondary data is used in review studies and meta analysis and often in correlational studies

Question 36

A03

Quantitative data

Answer 36

Quantitative data
-quantitiave data is easy to analyse using descriptive statstics and statsictal testing
-this may oversimplify reality leading to meaningless conclusions
-quantitiatve data allows researchers to collect reliable numerical data which canbe presented in charts graphs and stasrtical summaries
Qualititave data
-qualtitative data provides rich detailed description of peoples lived experience
-the complexity makes it more difficult to analyse the data and draw conclusions
-qualititatve data is powerful in helpng researchers to explore underlying meanings of behaviour
Primary data
-the researcher has high control over the type quality and quanitity of primary data they collect to test a specific hypothesis
-data collection is time consuming and often expensive
-despite these difficulties most psychological research aims to collect primary data
Secondary data
-secondary data is easier and cheaper to access than primary data and is valuable for meta analyses and correlational studies
-it may not exactly fit the needs of a new study
-this means there may be validity issues in comparing data collected or operaitionalised in different ways

Question 37

A01 introduction to statistical testing

Answer 37

-inferential statistics test the probability (P) that a particular set of data could have occurred by chance
-they establish significance whether the differences or associations we have observed in our sample are likely to be true in the population as a whole
-at a level of significance of p < 0.05 there is less than 5% probability that the results are due to chance and so not a real effect
-at a level of significance of p <0.01 there is a 1% chance of this happening. This would be a more stringent test which would be suitable for testing drug treatments
The sign test
The sign test can be used to test significance in paired or related data (repeated measures or matched pairs design)
1state the hypothesis
2for each pair of data add a sign column (+ or -) depending on which item in the pair is greater. If there is no difference between a pair of scores leave blank.
3 find the calculated value of the test statistic s which is the frequency of the less frequent sign
4 find the critical value of S from the table of critical values where N= total number of scores (ignoring blank rows) and choosing a one or two tailed test( a directional hypothesis requires a one tailed test, a non directional hypothesis requires a two tailed test) and a level of significance of p<0.005p <0.01
5 compare the calculated value with the critical value following the instruction so see if the difference is significant. Then decide whether the result is in the expected direction so whether the hypothesis can be accepted

Question 38

A01 the scientific process and peer review

Answer 38

-the scientific process has developed to ensure that scientific discoveries are reliable and includes the requirement for peer review of articles before publication
-peer review is also called refereeing is the assessment of scientific work by others who are experts in the same field
-the process comprises ;
-the academic paper is sent to a journal editor by the author
-the editor sends it to several experts in the field the academic referees
-the referees comment on the research and recommend acceptance, acceptance with some changes or rejection
-the editor makes a decision to publish the paper as it is or to return it to the author with a request for changes and resubmission or to reject it
-the aim is to ensure that published research is of high quality. Referees comment on
-validity
-originality
-quality
-importance
The purpose of peer review are;
-responsible allocation of research funding by government and charitable bodies
-preventing incorrect data entering the public domain via publication
-assessing the research quality rating of university departments

Question 39

A03

Peer review

Answer 39

Peer review in psychology is essential to establish the validity of published research
-in the 1950s burt published research into IQs in twins. This now appears to have been fraudulent which is a problem as educational policy was based on his findings
- a recent anonymous survey of psychologists indicate the majority have used questionable research practises and 1% admitted to falsifying data
-these practices result in a lack of trust for published research. Peer review aims to stop this happening to the benefit of scientists and society
Findings an expert peer reviewer may be difficult in a narrow field of research
-this means that the reviewers don’t really understand the research and may accept poor quality research or may be biased towards prestigious researchers
-it may be difficult to find a journal to publish controversial findings or theories that contradict existing ideas
-so peer review may actually b assessing the acceptability rather than the validity of a new finding
Publication bias is a problem
-journals are more likely to publish positive results and avoid publishing replications although these are essential for establishing reliability of findings
-this can lead to the file drawer phenomenon where non significant findings remain unpublished in the researchers filing cabinet
-this means that reviews and meta analysis also becomes biased as they can only examine published data
Once research is published it remains in the public domain
-if errors or fraud are subsequently found the journal may publish a retraction but the faulty data is still found in searches may still be used
-for example brooks points to peer reviewed research that was subsequently debunked but nevertheless continued to be used in debate in parliament
-this underlines the importance of vigilance by scientists to ensure their work is high quality and to communicate clearly with the public and policymakers. The public should also remain critical or published material

Question 40

A01 psychology and the economy

Answer 40

• economic psychology is also called behavioural economics
• researchers investigate the social, cognitive and emotional factors in economic decisions
• irrational thinking has been extensively researched by kahnerman who was awarded the nobel prize for economics in 2002 for example
• the availability heuristic-people overestimate the likelihood of events such as a plane accident because these events are more easily remembered when making a probability judgement due to media stories
• the framing effect-peoples decisions differ depending on whether a choice is presented as a gain or a loss
• these insights have changed many aspects of life eg juries, business and tax collection
• the UK government behavioural insights team also called the nudge unit uses psychological research to plan policy for example simpler and more personalised letters to non payers of car tax led to a tripling of payments made
• people are also influenced by reciprocity or the idea of fairness for example the message on a government website ‘if you needed an organ transplant would you have one?’ led to an increase in donors

Question 41

A03 psychology and the economy

Answer 41

Social psychology has been used to influence behaviour positively
-for example a campaign to reduce drink driving used social norms to change peoples attitudes
-similar ideas have been used to reduce social stereotypes and smoking with benefits to society
-a consequence is that the costs of unhealthy behaviours eg smoking drink driving to the NHS and to society generally are reduced
Memory research has led to improvements in accuracy of eyewitness testimony
-use of the cognitive interview has improved the amount of accurate info collected
-this ensures that police and court times is used efficiently
-this results in economic benefits as it reduces the expense of wrongful arrests
Attachment theory has influenced childcare policy
-we now understand the importance of emotional care in early childhood development
-UNICEF has stated that deprivation that stems from lack of care and nurture can have just as detrimental an effect on brain development as lack of food
-this has led to healthcare policies that improve childrens chances helping them to become more economically independent
Mental health policies have economic implications
-mental health care costs around £22.5 billion a year in England and there are also huge indirect costs via the impact on the criminal justice system lost employment
-treatments vary in their cost implications for example drug treatments may be much more cost effective than psychotherapy for some disorders
-therefore evidence based decisions help to reduce the costs associated with these treatments.

Question 42

Cross cultural research

Answer 42

-investigations carried out across more than one society