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PSYCH 258 - COGNITIVE PSYCH > Judgement, Decisions, and Reasoning > Flashcards

Judgement, Decisions, and Reasoning Flashcards

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1
Q

Evaluations about various things/dimensions

A

judgements

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2
Q

making choices between alternatives

A

decisions

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3
Q

the process of drawing conclusions that go beyond the available information

A

reasoning

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4
Q

drawing general conclusions based on SPECIFIC observations and EVIDENCE

  • reasoning going from specific -> general
A

inductive reasoning

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5
Q

Assuming that, if the 40 people in my experiment reacted to my manipulation by screaming, the general population will probably react this way too. This is an example of:

A

inductive reasoning

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6
Q

conclusions that are non-definitive in nature

A

probabilistic

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7
Q

reasoning that goes from general concept to specific -> most people like cookies so I’ll assume you do too…

A

deductive logic

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8
Q

Conclusions relying on deductive logic

A

syllogisms (so cute)

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9
Q

Elaborative processing in which you go from specific to general examples could be considered

A

induction

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10
Q

if I’ve come to the conclusion that my friend is going through something due to their change in behaviour and ever growing eye bags under their eyes, did I use inductive reasoning or deductive logic?

If I give my girl piano students more frozen stickers than Minecraft stickers because I think girls like Disney princesses more, is that inductive reasoning or deductive logic and why? (okay now maybe I did make this mistake irl but who am I kidding I also love Minecraft so idk what I was thinking look at me pushing gender norms and shit NO MORE. No more. Thank God Ivy likes Minecraft.)

A

friends eye bags big, negative change in behaviour -> specific
they’re going through something -> general

Specific -> general = Inductive reasoning

I think girls generally like Disney princesses -> general
I offer my girl piano students Frozen stickers -> specific

General -> specific = deductive

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11
Q

Strength of an INDUCTIVE (specific -> general) reasoning argument can depend on 3 factors:

A
  1. Representativeness of the observations (too specific?)
  2. Number of Observations
  3. Quality of Observations (validity, reliability)
  • basically validity, reliability, accuracy, and sample size
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12
Q

making a conclusion from the many results and aspects of an experiment would be _________ reasoning

A

inductive

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13
Q

Predetermined decision making strategies that allow choices to be made more quickly/efficiently

  • mental shortcuts to make decisions
  • “rules of thumb”
A

heuristics

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14
Q

events more easily remembered or salient or brought to mind are judged as being more probable/happening more frequently than those less easily remembered

A

availability heuristic

  • eg: we’re more scared of plane crashes and we assume they happen more frequently than we are of car crashes usually even though car crashes statistically happen more frequently because plane crashes usually get on the news but since car crashes are so frequent they’re less covered
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15
Q

correlation appears to exist but it’s actually not correlated in either direction or the correlation is much weaker than assumed

A

illusory correlations

eg: during summer, ice cream sales up and murder is up, so ice cream sales must cause murder…

ILLUSORY CORRELATION!!!! WRONG!!!

  • murders go up when ice cream sales go up during summer because heat causes aggression, and people buy more ice cream when it’s hot out
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16
Q

illusory correlations can lead to ________

A

stereotypes

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17
Q

__________ (2) can lead to stereotypes

A

illusory correlations

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18
Q

Oversimplified generalizations about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative

A

stereotypes

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19
Q

the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how often the properties of A has properties normally associated with class B

  • A is a member of class B if A has characteristics commonly associated with class B; not always accurate lol…
  • eg: “everyone with tattoos is a gangster”
A

representative heuristic

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20
Q

representative heuristics, in which we assume someone is part of a group because they have characteristics commonly associated with members of that group, are largely based on ________.

A

stereotypes

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21
Q

disregarding base rate information or the actual statistics can lead to making errors related to the ______________ (2)

A

representative heuristic

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22
Q

probability of two events cannot be higher than the combined probability of the single constituents

A

conjunction rule

  • eg: you have cat owners, and you have cat owners that own Norwegian Forest Cats; the latter is WITHIN the group of cat owners so the latter is one of the groups that adds up to the whole of cat owners - circle in head has to equal 100% I think
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23
Q

people tend to prefer ________ information over ________ information

A

descriptive information over base-rate information

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24
Q

more general STATISTICAL information

A

base-rate information

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25
Q

more specific event and detail based information

A

descriptive information

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26
Q

the larger the random sample size, the more representative the group will be of the whole population; small samples NOT as representative as large ones

A

Law of Large Numbers

(what a creative name…)

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27
Q

Tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes: (3)

A

the myside bias
(more lab setting)

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28
Q

Tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis/preconceived notions and overlook information that argues against it

A

confirmation bias

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29
Q

situations in which arguments raised that contradict a viewpoint held by an individual result in them feeling even more confident in their original position

Eg: listening to arguments for why high taxes are good might make someone already opposing high taxes EVEN MORE resistant to the idea

  • listening to arguments for why studying helps you might make a procrastinator even MORE likely to procrastinate cause idk hearing about how studying is good might make them feel bad about all the time they wasted and you get the point
A

the backfire effect

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30
Q

When an argument that was supposed to make you think one thing, but makes the other person who thinks the opposite even more firm in their original position. This is known as the: (2)

A

backfire effect

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31
Q

assumption that people are rational and if they have all relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility (3)

A

Expected Utility Theory (EUT)

32
Q

outcomes that are desirable because they are in the person’s best interest - eg: situation that makes them the most money

A

utility

33
Q

advantage for utility approach

A

specific procedures used to determine the “best” choice

34
Q

Downsides for expected utility theory/utility approach: (2)

A
  1. people find value in other things that aren’t money; may be hard to quantify these things -> enjoyment, love, etc.
  2. a lot of decisions don’t REALLY maximize the probability of the best outcome - eg: people know that a 1/9 chance is better than a 7/100 chance but they still pick the bowl with 100 jellybeans cause 7 is more and they pick that suboptimal option
35
Q

Emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome

  • I think I will be extremely devastated when I watch the last demon slayer movies (true tbh)
A

expected emotions

  • people frequently predict their emotions INACCURATELY
  • ok but demon slayer is so sad i know I’m gonna cry like Hakuji’s story…there’s no way I’m not sobbing or crying like I’m tearing up just thinking about it
36
Q

Emotions that are not specifically related to decision-making but nevertheless can affect the decisions making processes

  • if you’re in a mood that day you might make worse decisions

These emotions are called: (2)

A

incidental emotions

37
Q

Mood induction manipulations change the price participants were wiling to buy/sell an object for - if you’re sad you’ll sell the object for much lower but buy it for a much higher price.

That’s why I’m always buying those expensive ass sweet treats on campus that aren’t REALLY worth $6.50 now that I think about it when I’m depressed.

This is due to: __________ emotions

A

incidental emotions

38
Q

Decisions can depend on how choices are ________.

A

presented
or framed

39
Q

having someone make a decision to sign up for something (positive action)

A

Opt-in procedure

40
Q

having someone be something unless they request otherwise (negative action, subtractive)

A

Opt-out procedure

41
Q

the tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision (damn)

A

status quo bias

(Bias for one’s existing state, if choice too hard then they’ll just stay with how they are)

42
Q

random but I feel like the opt-out can be a little manipulative idk…like you have to be in this….but opt-out if you want to….that is if you remember to……

A

organ donation bro….thats crazy

43
Q

the idea that decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated, often by highlighting one aspect of a situation

eg: medium size is usually used for this…

small fries - $5.99
medium fries - $7.99
large fries - $8.25 “wow what a good deal its not that much more expensive than the medium I’d be CRAZY to not get the large for that value) well guess what they just made 25 more cents off of you)

A

framing effect

44
Q

When situations are framed in terms of gains, people tend to go toward a _________ (2) strategy because:

A

risk-aversion strategy
- they want to maintain their gains

45
Q

when situations are framed in terms of losses, people tend toward a ________ (2) strategy because:

A

risk-taking strategy
- if they’ve lost a lot already what is there to lose now T_T

46
Q

situation:

disease spreading
option A: save 200 people for sure
option B: 50% chance you save 400 people and 50% you save no one

this is an example of a situation framed in _______, in which most people would take a _______ (2) strategy to (option __) because:

A
  • framed in gains
  • risk-aversion strategy
  • option A
  • maintain the gains and the positives you are already guaranteed to have
47
Q

situation:

disease
option A: 200 people will definitely die
option B: 50% chance that no one dies but 50% chance that all 400 people die

this is an example of a situation framed in _______, in which most people would take a _______ (2) strategy to (option __) because:

A
  • losses, focusing on the negatives
  • risk-taking strategy
  • option B
  • well if we’re gonna lose people anyways, we might as well lose everyone or NOT LOSE AT AL!!!!!!!!
  • if we’re losing anyways, what do we have to lose
48
Q

You and a player are dividing a stack of coins. You have $60 and the other person has $20. If the other player rejects your proposal, you both get nothing. How much will you offer? This paradigm is known as the _________ (2).

A

ultimatum game

(I personally wouldn’t offer anything but okay if I really have to since I have to I guess like…$20 dollars I guess idk)

49
Q

if a judge gets hungry you might be screwed

A

apparently favourable rulings went to 0% right before their food break and back up to 65% after the food break thats insane there really are extraneous factors in play in judicial decisions sometimes…..

50
Q

The greater the activation of the right anterior _______ in the brain during the ultimatum game, the more likely participants to reject offers

A

insula

51
Q

a desire to hurt, annoy, or offend someone

A

spite

52
Q

emotion clouds judgment

A

wow i didn’t know that haha…(has BPD)

53
Q

describing the relation between two categories using “all”, “no” or “some” (when using deductive logic)

A

categorical syllogism

54
Q

Conclusion made as a result of deductive logic

A

syllogism

55
Q

two initial statements of a syllogism

A

premises

56
Q

the third statement following the two premises of a syllogism

A

conclusion

57
Q

Naomi is AFAB. All AFABs get periods (usually). Naomi gets a period. This is an example of a ________ using __________ reasoning/logic

A

syllogism
deductive logic

58
Q

Two initial statements or two premises, followed by a third statement or a conclusion, using the words ‘all’, ‘no’, or ‘some’.

A

categorical syllogism

59
Q

Two initial statements or two premises, followed by a third statement or a conclusion

A

syllogism

60
Q

if the logic is internal consistently, or the conclusion follows logically from its two premises, the syllogism is _______, but that does not mean it’s ______

A

valid, but does not mean it’s true

61
Q

if two premises of a valid syllogism are true, the syllogism’s conclusion must also be true; this is essentially whether the syllogism’s conclusion both fares with the ______ (2) of the world, and is ______ (2).

A

premises true, conclusion true, syllogism valid (logic is internally consistent)

+

true state of the world and internally consistent

= true syllogism

62
Q

All birds are animals. All animals have 4 legs. All birds have four legs. This is an example of a syllogism that is _______ but ________ (2) because:

A

valid, not true

the logic is internally consistent but the premises and conclusion is just not true

63
Q

All A are B, all B are C, therefore all A are C, is the template for a ________ using _________ logic/reasoning.

A

syllogism
deductive logic

64
Q

If I eat less cake, I’ll lose weight.
I ate cake over the past 2 months.
Therefore, I did not lose weight.

Is this a valid or invalid syllogism? Why?

A

invalid

  • there could be other factors influencing weight loss besides just cake
  • the logic is not super consistent throughout
65
Q

__________ (2) or the tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable, is one example of a common error people make when evaluating syllogisms.

A

belief bias

66
Q

A specific situation represented in a person’s mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning. (2)

A

mental model

67
Q

4 steps of making a mental model to see if someones syllogism from deductive reasoning is legit:

A
  1. Create model of situation
  2. Generate tentative conclusions about model
  3. Look for exceptions (play devil’s advocate)
  4. Determine Validity

Basically, make model, think about model, play devil’s advocate, and make your decision valid or invalid.

68
Q

Determine whether a rule is being followed by selecting 2 cards to turn over. This task is known as _________ (4).

A

Wason’s four card problem

69
Q

the approach to testing rules that involves looking for examples that don’t work is known as the __________ (2)

A

falsification principle

70
Q

Someone who says that to test a rule, it is necessary to look for situations that would refute the rule, would be in favour of using the _________ (2) to solve the Wason Four Card Problem.

A

falsification principle

71
Q

the modified version of the Wason four card problem with the rule “if people are drinking beer, they are over 19 years old”, is easier to solve due to __________ schemas, because we are more familiar with them in other contexts

A

permission schemas

72
Q

the representation of a situation in which certain actions can be carried out only if certain conditions are met

A

permission schema

(Eg: people can only drink if over 18 years old)

73
Q

The idea that we rely on two somewhat dissociable systems for decision making with different relative strengths and weaknesses (tradeoffs). (5)

A

Dual Systems Approach to Thinking

74
Q

A bat and a ball cost $1.10. The bat costs one dollar more than the ball. How much does the ball cost?

The first answer that pops up in people’s minds is that the ball costs 10 cents, but then you reevaluate it and realize that if the ball was 10 cents and the bat was a dollar more, it would be $1.10 + $0.10 which would be $1.20, so you realize the real answer would be that the ball is $0.05 and the bat is $1.05. This question would be a good example of the ______________ (5) in play.

A

Dual Systems Approach to Thinking (DSAT)

75
Q

Intuitive, fast, non-conscious, automatic thinking (DSAT)

A

System 1

76
Q

reflective, slow, controlled, conscious way of thinking (DSAT)

A

System 2

77
Q

The concepts of automatic vs. controlled memory encoding/attentional processing, etc. would parallel the __________ (5) in which system 1 is automatic and system 2 is controlled.

A

Dual Systems Approach to Thinking

PSYCH 258 - COGNITIVE PSYCH (11 decks)

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