Issues And Debates (Paper 3) Flashcards
Gender bias
Different treatment/ representation of males and females based on stereotypes
Alpha bias
-When differences between men and women are shown and may be exaggerated. Either to heighten value of women or devalue them
-These differences are presented as real and enduring, fixed and inevitable
Examples of alpha bias
-Freud’s theories reflected the culture in which he lived, where men were more powerful and typically more educated
-Freud’s theory of psychoanalysis viewed femininity as a form of failed masculinity and therefore he exaggerated the differences between men and women- alpha bias
Alpha bias example- evolutionary theory
-Wilson, evolutionary theory of relationship formation focuses on survival efficiency
-Believes it’s in male interest to try and impregnate as many women as possible to ensure genes are passed on
-Sexual promiscuity in males is genetically determined, while women who engage in similar activity are seen as going against their nature.
Beta bias
-When differences between the two sexes are ignored or minimised or underestimated
-Most of the research on aggression used males in the studies but apply the findings to all genders, beta bias
-This often occurs when female participants are not included as part of the research process and it is then assumed that the research findings apply equally to both sexes.
Beta bias example- Milgram
-His initial research on obedience only used American men
-Though he argued his findings were universal and represented the obedience levels of both men and women
Examples of gender bias in research/theories
-Research into moral development (forensic) that suggests women’s morality might be less sophisticated than that of men (Kohlberg)
-Evolutionary theory (relationships)might suggest promiscuity in men is normal and acceptable whilst promiscuity in women is abnormal and unacceptable
-Much work on the fight or flight response (yr12 biopsychology and stress) is focused on men – women’s stress reaction can be different – tend and befriend
Universality and bias
-When a theory is described as universal, it means that it can apply to all people, irrespective of gender and culture
-Need to reinforce views that men and women are more similar than they are different
Androcentrism
-Historically, almost all psychologists were men, therefore many theories represent a male point of view
-This is androcentrism
Institutional sexism
-Consequence of beta bias
-If our understanding of ‘normal’ behaviour is being drawn from research that involves ‘all male’ samples, then behaviour that deviates from this is seen as ‘abnormal’ by comparison
-Female behaviour is misunderstood and underrepresented
Androcentrism example- Freud
-As girls do not experience castration anxiety in the phallic stage, not under same pressure to identify with same sex parent
-Female then forms a weaker superego and so her sense of morality is inferior to males
-Femininity is an expression of failed masculinity
Feminists psychology
-Aims to redress the imbalances in theory and research
-Agrees that there are real biological sexual differences between males and females
-For example, Eagly claimed that women may be less effective leaders in comparison to men
-Allows researchers to develop suitable training programmes that can help redress this gender bias
Biased research methods
-It may not be that males and females are different, but that the methods used to test or observe them are biased
-This could result in males and females appearing different when they are not
-This could reduce the validity of gender research and cause alpha bias
Dealing with gender bias
-Promoting the idea that not all members of a sex are the same
-E.g. studying women in a women only environment.
Cultural bias
Interpreting and judging behaviour and psychological characteristics of people from another culture against the standards of your own.
Cultural bias in psychology
-This can take a number of different forms in psychology
-For example, theories developed in one country are then applied inappropriately to all others
-Or in biased research methods which only use participants which are not representative of all cultures
Ethnocentrism
-Emphasising the importance of the behaviours of ones own culture
-Interpreting things from your own cultural point of view
-There is a tendency to see your own beliefs, customs and behaviours as normal
Cultural bias in social influence
-Asch and Milgrams studies into conformity and obedience are replicated in other parts of the world, very different results often found
-Therefore it can be argued that this research only reflects cultural norms of the place of the original study
-Americans at the time could’ve just been more conformist and obedient
Avoiding cultural bias: Indigenous psychologies
-Indigenous psychologies is the development of different groups of theories in different countries, for example, Afrocentrism
-This is a movement which suggests all black ppl have their roots in Africa and that theories must be African centred
-The problem with this is that they are only significant to understanding the behaviour within one culture
Two approaches to avoiding cultural bias
-Cross-cultural approach – study many different cultures to identify the variations
-Transcultural approach – study many different cultures to identify the similarities
Cultural bias: conclusion
-Only way to rid psychology of cultural bias is for more cross cultural research to be undertaken by people from within these cultures rather than from outside
-This requires assistance and funding from societies who already have an established tradition of psychological research
Determinism
-View that general idea and traits and behaviour is outside our control
-This means our behaviour should be predictable
Hard determinism
-Our lives (thoughts, behaviours, choices) governed by forces out of our control
-Assumes both internal and external forces determine our behaviour
-Biological and environmental determinism are both part of hard
Biological determinism
-The idea that traits and behaviours are governed by internal biological factors like genes, neurochemistry, brain structure and function- biology is destiny
