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Psychology Revision > Forensic Psychology (Paper 3) > Flashcards

Forensic Psychology (Paper 3) Flashcards

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1
Q

Offender profiling

A

Two approaches in offender profiling: top down and bottom up

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2
Q

Top down approach

A

-Originated in USA from FBI
-Based off interviews with 36 serial killers
-Profilers start with pre-established typology
-They then work down and assign offender to one of these typologies
-Data is then compared to other criminals in data base to identify any types of patterns of people

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3
Q

Top down approach 4 stages

A
  1. Data assimilation
  2. Crime scene classification
  3. Crime reconstruction
  4. Profile generation
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4
Q
  1. Data assimilation
A

Data is collected from the scene- what information might we collect?

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5
Q
  1. Crime scene classification
A

-Profiler starts to make decisions and organises information
-Type of offender (organised, disorganised)
-Murder type (spree, mass, serial)
-Time (day, night, long)
-Location (where, public or private)

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6
Q

Organised offender

A

-Leave behind a crime scene that suggests pre planning, lack of spontaneity and selective victims
-Clean up behind them

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7
Q

Disorganised crime

A

-Highly likely to leave evidence behind such as fingerprints
-Lack of planning
-Spontaneous

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8
Q
  1. Crime reconstruction
A

-A profile is constructed with hypotheses about what happened during the crime
-Aim is to narrow down list of suspects
-Strategy to catch offender is developed, anticipating how they may respond to investigation
-Interview strategy decided

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9
Q
  1. Profile generated
A

Written report is made
-Match against existing data held
-Sketch of offender such as demographics, physical characteristics and behavioural habits

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10
Q

Research for top down approach

A

-FBI carried out structured interviews with 36 sec murdeeres such as Ted Buddy and Manson
-What led to offending?
-What early warning signs were there?
-What encouraged or inhibited offences
-Responses and analysis of crimes led to crimes being placed into organised or disorganised

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11
Q

Top down advantages

A

-Copson: 82% police officers interviewed said it was useful and 90% said they would use again
-There is evidence to support the existence of an organised offender type

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12
Q

Top down limitations

A

-Small sample size in research
-Low validity- based on 36 individuals through interview
-Low reliability- can’t trust criminals
-Can’t generalise, only applies to bizzare and extreme murders and crimes

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13
Q

Bottom up approach: David Canter

A

-British approach
-Starts with small detail to create bigger picture
-No assumptions, relies on computer databases
-Help show how and why variations in criminal behaviour occur

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14
Q

Bottom up method

A

-Starts with raw data about the crime and makes it way up to a conclusion about the criminal
-Assumes offender leave a psychological fingerprint of unique behaviour
-Identified similarities within behaviour of offenders and identifiable differences between offenders

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15
Q

Bottom: Research support

A

-John Duffy carried our 24 sexual attacks and 3 murders of women
-Canter analysed geographical details and evidence drew up a surprisingly accurate loophole
-Didn’t lead to Duffey arrest

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16
Q

Bottom up: investigative psychology

A

-Process where each crime is recorded on database
-Analysis of patterns of behaviour
-Details of new crimes are matched with this in order to develop hypothesis of likely characteristics
-People are consistent in their behaviour so therefore there will be links between how someone behaves when offending and behaviour in everyday life

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17
Q

Bottom up: geographical profiling

A

-Used to make assumptions about where and offender is likely to live
-Reveal the sled in location they chose as much as behaviour
Looks at where rather than who
-Offenders more likely to commit crimes near to where they live

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18
Q

Geographical profiling: circle theory

A

Canter and Larkin
-Propose offenders commit crimes within an imagined circle
-Two types of offender…

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19
Q

Marauder

A

-Commit crime within confined area
-Operates within awareness space
-Likely to have anchor point from where to operate

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20
Q

Commuter

A

-Commits crimes over large areas
-Crosses cultural and psychological bounariws
-Much harder to catch

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21
Q

Bottom up: Copson

A

-Surveyed 48 uk police forces
-75% said profiler advice been useful
-Only 3% said helped actually catch offender
-Used to narrow down suspects not find exact one

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22
Q

Bottom up evaluation

A

Strengths
-Helps target individuals that otherwise might not have been identified
-Statsitical basis makes it more reliable
-Can be applied to wide range of offences

Limitations
-Canter & Larkin found in 45 sexual assaults, 91% were marauders - this may suggest that this is too generic and may apply to too many people
-An imaginary circle is problematic and not very scientific

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23
Q

Historical explanation for offending: Atavistic form

A

-Evolutionary theory proposed by LOMBROSSO
-Focuses on evolutionary individuals and how those who become offenders may not have evolved as much as non offenders
-Proposes offenders appear to have a atavistic form which has impacted their ability to become part of society

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24
Q

Physical traits of atavistic form

A

-Term coined by lombrosso to describe physical traits found in common offenders
-Includes: Strong Jaw line, Heavy brow, Large ears, Dark hair, Thin lips

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25
Q

LOMBROSSO key study

A

Aim- Identify distinguishing physical features among male criminals which set them apart as offenders

Method- Examined features and measurements of nearly 4000 criminals and skulls of 400 dead ones

Results- 40% of those examined had atavistic features

Conclusion- these characteristics indicated that such people were more primitive in an evolutionary sense - such individuals were not responsible for their actions as it was down to their innate, inherited physiology

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26
Q

Atavistic evaluation

A

Strengths
-LOMBROSSO brought science to crime
-Used evidence to support theory
-Kaplan suggested that those with different features will fave exclusion from society therefore leading to low self esteem

Limitations
-Correlation does not mean causation
-Lack of control during Lombroso’s experiment - didn’t pay the same attention
to criminals and those outside of prison
-Determinism - is there no free will on whether an individual commits an offence

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27
Q

Psychodynamic explanation of offending

A

-Psychodynamic explanation of offending is centred around the role of the unconscious mind and childhood development
-Assumes disruption to attachment during early years of life and unresolved crisis in psychosexual stages of development are leading causes of offending behaviour

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28
Q

The ID and EGO

A

ID- ‘I want’ pleasure principle
EGO- Rational part of personality that attempts to satisfy ID needs

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29
Q

SUPERWEGO

A

-Concept proposed by Freud
-Known as morality principle
-Responsible for morals and right or wrong and guilt
-Influenced by parents during phallic stage

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30
Q

Weak Superego

A

-If the same sex parent is absent during the phallic stage, the child cannot internalise a fully formed superego as there is no opportunity for identification
-Fail to internalise the moral values of the same sex parent
-Would make immoral or criminal behaviour more likely

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31
Q

Harsh superego

A

-May develop if the same-sex parent is overly-harsh
-Identify with the same sex parent
-Feel unable to ‘live up’ to the parents
standards
-An individual is crippled by guilt and anxiety
and commits crime in order to satisfy the superego need for punishment

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32
Q

Deviant superego

A

-If the superego that the child internalises has immoral or deviant values it could lead to offending behaviour
-The child internalises the morals of criminal or deviant same-sex parent
-A boy that is raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing

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33
Q

Maternal dep

A

-Predicts that if an infant is deprived of a
mother or mother figure during the critical period then there will be serious consequences
-These consequences include depression, affectionless psychopathology

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34
Q

Bowlby 44 thieves

A

Aim: To see if early separations (deprivation) were associated with behavioural disorders. In particular, Bowlby defined a particular disorder, affectionless psychopathy, to describe individuals who have no sense of shame or guilt

Method: 88 children from 5-16 examined. 44 of these children were thieves 14 of the thieves were classified as affectionless psychopaths. Bowlby interviewed the children and their families

Result: 86% of AP experienced early and prolonged attachment separations. Only 17% of the other thieves had experienced such separations. 4% of the control group had experienced frequent early separations.

Conclusion: These findings suggest a link between early separations and later social maladjustment. Maternal deprivation appears to lead affectionless psychopathy and antisocial behaviour

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35
Q

Psychodynamic evaluation

A

Strengths
-The only explanation for offending behaviour that deals with the role of emotional factors
-This research had implications for prevention of delinquency - trying to prevent delinquency before it’s too late

Limitations
-Many children grow up without same-sex parents and the vast majority do not turn to crime
-The idea of the over-harsh superego & wanting to be punished does not add up - many criminals go to great lengths not to be caught and punished
-Correlation not causation

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36
Q

Eysencks criminal personality

A

-Psychological personality types
-Within this theory it says that our personality is innate and has a biological bias
-Personality is genetic, we inherita type of nervous system that predisposes us to offending
-He highlights the ‘criminal personality’

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37
Q

Personality characteristic

A

-Personality varies along three dimensions
-Neurotic, Extravert and Psychoticsm
-Criminal personality theory has considerable links with biological explanations as they view behaviour of criminal based off their nervous system

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38
Q

Recipe for criminal personality

A

High Psychoticism + Extravert + High neuroticsm

39
Q

Extraversion

A

-Extraversion is due to chronically under-aroused nervous system which leads to sensations seeking
-This results in the impulsive behaviour
-Extraversions do not condition easily and do not learn from mistakes
-The thrill of committing a crime might draw them to offending behaviour

40
Q

Neuroticism and stable

A

-Have over aroused SNS where emotional states aren’t regulated such as fear and aggression
-React swiftly and strongly to stressors
-Instability means their behaviour is difficult to predict with high levels of emotion

41
Q

Psychoticism

A

-Excess dopamine neurons causing overproduction of dopamine
-Leads to inhibition of impulses during synaptic transmission potentially causing aggressive behaviour
-Hormones such as testosterone also implicated in the psychotic personality
-Increased levels of testosterone, more aggression and lack conscience

42
Q

Environmental element

A

-Eysenck believed criminality was outcome of innate personality and socialisation
-A person is born with certain personality traits, but interaction with the environment is key in the development of criminality
-Socialisation = where children are taught to become able to delay gratification and become more socially oriented

43
Q

Conditioning

A
  1. A child is conditioned
  2. Child learns sense of right and wrong
  3. Child avoids behaviour which leads to punishment
  4. Child controls own impulses
    People with high extraversion and neuroticism cannot be conditioned easily
44
Q

Eysencks personality questionnaire

A

-Measures where someone is along Extraversion, neuroticism and Psychoticism
-Lie score is out of 9
-Measures how socially desirable you are trying to be in your answers
-Those who score 5 or more on this scale are probably trying to make themselves look good and not being completely honest

45
Q

Eysencks research support

A

-Compared 2010 male prisoners score on personality test and 2422 male control group
-Sub divided into age group (16-69)
-Across all age groups, prisoners recorded higher scores on EPQ than
controls
-Only conducted on males- Beta bias

46
Q

Eysencks theory evaluation

A

Limitations
-Cultural bias - Eysenck studied mainly white western European participants, guilty of property crimes (doesn’t measure personality for serious crimes)
-Oversimplification of the classification of criminals
-Farrington et al (1982) - reviewed 16 studies and found that offenders tend to score highly on P and N measures but NOT always on E

47
Q

Cognitive distortions

A

-Faulty, irrational ways of thinking which can cause individuals to perceive themselves, others or the world inaccurately, usually negative
-“My partner hasn’t text me in the last few hours, he must be angry with me, he’s about the break up with me … well i’ll get in their first”

48
Q

Gibbs et al (1995)

A

-Errors or biases in peoples informational processing characterised by irrational thinking
-Ways of thinking so that reality has become twisted and what we perceive no longer represents what’s true
-A persons perception of events if wrong but think is accurate

49
Q

Two examples of cognitive distortions

A

-Hostile attribution bias and minimilisation

50
Q

Hostile attribution bias

A

-What we think when we observe someone’s actions and inferring what these actions mean
-Violence caused by the perception that other peoples acts are aggressive
-In the case of offenders, such negative interpretations can be linked to their aggressive or violent behaviour
Example:
See guy pulling up trousers + experience negative thoughts = aggressive behaviour

51
Q

Research support- hostile faces- Wegrzyn 2017

A

Participants- 62 males (30 violent criminals, 15 with a history of sexual abuse and 17 controls)

Method- They were shown 20 ambiguous faces (10 male and 10 female) and asked to rate fear and anger

Findings- The violent criminals rated the faces as angry more often than the control group

52
Q

Minimilisation

A

-Downplaying seriousness of an offence
-Some will underplay their offences
-Helps individual to accept consequences of behaviour
-Research suggests individuals who commit sexual offences are particularly prone to minimilisation

53
Q

Example of minimilisation

A

Robber says ‘they got loads of money’, ‘I need to support my family’, ‘it won’t really affect their lives’

54
Q

Research support for minimilisation

A

-Barbaree, among 26 imprisoned rapists, 54% denied offence at all and 40% minimised harm caused

55
Q

Moral reasoning- Kohlberg

A

-Based his theory on criminal and non criminal responses to a number of moral dilemmas
-Decisions and judgements were then summarised into a stage theory of development
-The higher the stage, the more sophisticated the reasoning

56
Q

Levels of moral reasoning

A

-3 levels of moral reasoning and each stage represents a more advanced form of moral understanding
-Kohlberg uses his levels of moral reasoning to explain criminal behaviour
-He claimed criminals’ ideas of right and wrong would be developed in childhood as one of the stages of development
-He suggested criminals moral reasoning is lower than non criminals

57
Q

Level 1: Pre Morality

A

-Stage 1: doing what is right because of fear of punishment, if punishment can be avoided then they will do wrong
-Stage 2: Doing what is right for personal gain, perhaps a reward. Rewards outweighs punishment.

58
Q

Level 2: Conventional morality

A

-Stage 3: Doing what is right according to majority to be good
-Stage 4: Doing what is right because it is your duty and helps socieyy

59
Q

Level 3: Post conventional morality

A

-Stage 5: Doing what is right even if it is against the law because the law is too restrictive
-Stage 6: Doing what is right because of our inner conscious which has absorbed the principles of justice and equality and sacredness of life

60
Q

Research support for moral reasoning

A

-Kohlberg conducted a longitudinal study over a period of 12 years
-75 young American males aged 10-16 years old at the start of stage were aged 22-28 by end
-10% adults reached post conventional level
-Majority of criminals do not progress from pre conventional level of moral reasoning
-Kohlberg found that a group,of violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non violent youths

61
Q

Moral reasoning evaluation

A

Strengths
-Demonstrated that his moral stages were universal as he later studied children in Britain, Mexico, Turkey and USA, amongst others

Limitations
-Does moral reasoning necessarily lead to moral behaviour? Theory is based on thinking, not our actual actions
-Most of Kohlbergs reasrch conducted on males

62
Q

Differential association theory of offending

A

-Proposes that people become offenders when they are exposed to offender behaviours of pro crime attitudes at home
-Considers offender behaviour to be learned, rather than biological or cognitive

63
Q

Pro Crime attitude

A

-Pro crime attitudes are evident when family or people at home are encouraging about offending
-They may display a tolerance for criminal behaviours, or they may discuss offending as way of survival
-Considered to be extremely influential in development of offender behaviour

64
Q

Sutherland

A

-Proposed ppl become offenders when they are exposed to crime in the family and/or pro crime attitudes at home
-Sutherland claims all crim behaviour is learned from other people and that it is the repeated exposure to pro crime attitudes or behaviours that increase likelihood of someone offending

65
Q

Exposure to criminal values

A

High frequency + high intensity + high duration = likely to commit a crime

66
Q

Research support: Farrington et al

A

-Followed 411 males (all working in working-class, deprived inner-city area of London)
-Longitudinal study (between 8 and 50 years old)
-By the end, 41% had at least one conviction
-Most significant childhood risk factors (between 8 and 10) for later offending is family criminality, risk-taking, low school attainment, poverty, poor parenting
-Suggests that offenders will come from families and groups who have pro-criminal norms

67
Q

Differential association: evaluation

A

Strengths
-Can answer for more types of crimes for all races, gender and social groups as all these can be socialised. Helps tackle cause of all crimes
-Moved emphasis of biological causes, more realistic approach

Limitations
-Doesn’t account for individual differences, some ppl more easily led than others
-Correlation not causation - who is influencing who?

68
Q

Biological explanation

A

Genes and neural explanation

69
Q

Genetics

A

-Propose that one or more genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour
-This is researched through twin studies where identical and non identical twins are compared

70
Q

MAOA gene

A

-‘Criminal gene’
-Breaks down brain chemicals such as serotonin, dopamine, noradrenaline
-This gene variant means potentially having large quantities of these chemicals (serotonin) in the brain
-Bruner et al, analysed DNA of 28 violent crim and found 5 share particular gene leading to abnormally low level of MAOA- linked to aggression

71
Q

CDH-13

A

-Increases likelihood of becoming criminal
-Jari Tiihonen et al. (2015) studied 900 offenders and found evidence of low MAOA and CDH-13 genes
-Those with gene variant 13 times more likely to have history of repeated violent behaviour

72
Q

Twin studies: Christiansen

A

Looked at 3586 twin pairs in Denmark:

Males
Concordance rate of 35% for MZ twins (identical)
Concordance rate of 13% for DZ twins (non-identical)

Females
Concordance rate of 21% for MZ twins (identical)
Concordance rate of 8% for DZ twins (non-identical)

73
Q

Diathesis stress model

A

-Modern understanding of genetic influence no longer proposes that one or even a few genes alone will determine behaviour
-Someone may have biological tendencies towards crimes, but they will need some sort of environmental trigger to actually become a criminal

74
Q

Neural

A

-Structures of brain may be different in criminals
-Differences in neural transmitted levels e.g. high levels of noradrenaline have been linked to violence and aggression and low levels of serotonin linked to impulsivity

75
Q

Pre frontal cortex- Raine (2004)

A

-Cited 71 brain imaging studies showing that murderers, psychopaths and violent individuals have reduced functioning in the prefrontal cortex
-This is the area involved in regulating emotions, planning, personality, decision making and controlling moral behaviour
-Low activity in this area is associated with impulsiveness and loss of control

76
Q

Limbic system- Raine et al

A

-Investigated whether there was any difference in the brain activity of murderers and non-murderers
-Sample was 41 violent murderers and 41 non murderers
-Using PET scanning techniques, Raine found differences in brain activity in the prefrontal cortex and areas of the limbic system (amygdala, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus etc)

77
Q

Genetic and neural explanation evaluation

A

Strengths
-Diathesis model takes into account both biology and environment
-PET scans scientific method

Limitations
-Although criminality does run in families, so do other risk factors associated with criminality (pro-criminal attitudes)
-Deterministic - the genes a person is born with determine later behaviour, BUT not everyone with this gene has become a criminal

78
Q

Dealing with offender behaviour

A

-Refers to different methods of rehabilitating offenders, or the different ways of keeping the general population safe.

79
Q

Custodial sentencing

A

Refers to use of prisons to deal with offenders. 4 keys aims of using custodial sentencing:
Rehabilitation- ensure offenders correct behaviour to return to society

Retribution- punishment for offence and a public acknowledgment to victims and the public that breaking law is not tolerated

Deterrence- Show people crime has consequences that are undesirables so they stay clear from offending and decrease likelihood of reoffending

Incapacitation- remove offenders from society and increase how safe non offenders feel in everyday life

80
Q

Recidivism

A

-Refers to rate of reoffending
-If offender spends time in prison and then released they are reoffending if they go on to commit further crimes

81
Q

Stress

A

Barton-
-Imprisonment can be brutal, demanding and devastating
-Suicide rates tended to be 15% higher than in general pop
-Most at risk are single men, under the age of 24, in the first 24 hours of custody
-25% of women and 15% of men have reported symptoms of psychosis

82
Q

Depression

A

-Abramson et al. (1989) - depression is caused by both helplessness and hopelessness
-These are both feelings that offenders entering prison may initially feel

83
Q

Institutionalisation

A

-Having adapted to the norms of prison life, some find it impossible to then cope with ‘real life’

84
Q

Prisonisation

A

-Some behaviours that are unacceptable in the outside world are encouraged & rewarded inside prison

85
Q

Custodial sentencing evaluation

A

Strengths
-Allows prisoners to gain qualifications (education and employment)
-One purpose of prison is deterrence, evidence suggests that prisoners do not enjoy prison as it increases suicide rates

Limitations
-Ignores individual differences
-The psychological effects on prisoners
-Just because a criminal is in prison doesn’t mean they won’t commit crimes
-Cuts to prison budgets mean anger management, training, education and therapy not always available

86
Q

Behaviour modification

A

-Strategies used to shape behaviour, teaching and eradicating behaviours
-Token economies example of this by rewarding desirable behaviour and punishing undersirable
-

87
Q

Tokens

A

-Tokens used as rewards (secondary reinforcement)
-If prisoner committed crime that involve violence they will be rewarded if they walk away from a fight etc
-Tokens can be saved up and exchanged for rewards and privileges such as food, drink and visits.
-Tokens can also be taken away

88
Q

Miltenberger

A

7 components of token economies:
1. Target behaviours are identified
2. Types of tokens are decided
3. Primary reinforcers are identified
4. Reinforcement schedule is decided
5. Exchange criterion i.e. price
6. Time/place for exchange is decided
7. Penalty/fine for engaging in undesirable behaviours

89
Q

Token economy evaluation

A

Strengths
-Hobbs and Holt (1976) - Observed significant improvement in positive behaviour as a result of the introduction of the token economy

Limitations
-Prisoners might ‘fake’ behaviour that they know is desirable to get rewarded
-Blackburn (1993) - token economies “have little rehabilitative value” and any positive changes may quickly be lost when offenders are released

90
Q

Anger management

A

-Anger management is one way of dealing with offenders; it is centred around a cognitive behavioural therapy approach.
-The aim of anger management is to challenge and change the coping methods and thinking patterns of offenders through a series of stages.

91
Q

3 stages to anger management

A
  1. Cognitive preparation, Reflect on past behaviours that have made them angry. Identify situations/triggers that provoke anger. Thought patterns are challenged - help them recognise that there response is irrational & help them to think about the situations as non-threatening
  2. Skill acquisition, New coping skills are learned to enable them to avoid triggers & deal with situations more rationally. Relaxation techniques, stop and think, assertiveness, effective communication
  3. Application practise, Role-play a variety of scenarios to practice new skills to control anger. Done in a controlled and safe environment. Therapist will deliberately provoke the individual to see how theyʼd react
92
Q

Anger man research support- ireland

A

Aim: whether anger management courses work
Method: natural experiment compared a group of 50 prisoners who had completed CALM and a group of 37 who were assessed as suitable but had not actually taken the course
Results: prisoners who completed CALM rated themselves lower on the anger questionnaire. 92% showed improvements on at least one measure of aggression and anger
Conclusion: in the short-term, the treatment seemed effective

93
Q

Anger management evaluation

A

Strengths
-Force offenders to think about crimes

Limitations
-Not all crimes are motivated by anger
-Anger management is expensive - requires a skilled therapist
to deliver

Psychology Revision (12 decks)

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