Issues and debates (general)

Question 1

Give one example of each type of determinism

Answer 1

Dopamine hypothesis (biological), differential association theory (environmental), the inadequate superego (psychic)

Question 2

Explain why the natural sciences are deterministic

Answer 2

Science is based on the assumption that things can be consistently reduced to cause and effect relationships, and relies on this regularity to make predictions and laws

Question 3

Give two supportive arguments for determinism

Answer 3

It is consistent with the aims of science (so is scientific), and through predicting human behaviour we have been able to beneficially control it (e.g. in therapy)

Question 4

Give two arguments against determinism

Answer 4

It is unfalsifiable, and hard determinism conflicts with the assumption made by our legal system that criminals are responsible for their actions

Question 5

Give two supportive arguments for free will

Answer 5

It has face validity (it feels like we have it), and Roberts et al found that people with an internal LOC tend to be mentally healthy, so even if we don’t have free will, just thinking that we do is beneficial

Question 6

Give two arguments against free will

Answer 6

Chun Siong Soon et al found that brain activity signifying having made a decision appears up to 10 seconds before the individual is conscious of having made that choice, and surely no one would freely choose to have a mental illness

Question 7

Which approach is most closely linked with the notion of free will?

Answer 7

The humanistic approach (humans as self-determining active agents free to determine their own development)

Question 8

Give two causes of gender bias

Answer 8

Male only samples in psychological research, too much emphasis placed on biological differences between the sexes (ignoring cultural/external influences)

Question 9

Give four consequences of gender bias

Answer 9

One gender is misrepresented, the needs of one gender is ignored, one gender is de-valued, stereotyping (attitude) and discrimination (behaviour)

Question 10

Give three ways of overcoming gender bias

Answer 10

Reflexivity, using mixed gender samples, considering social context as well as biology, valuing differences and avoiding comparisons between the genders

Question 11

Give one example of alpha bias and three of beta bias

Answer 11

Alpha bias: according to the psychodynamic approach, in resolving the Oedipus complex, boys develop a stronger sense of morality than girls. Beta bias: Milgram, Asch and Zimbardo all used all-male samples

Question 12

List the approaches from most nativist to most empiricist

Answer 12

Biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, humanistic, behaviourist

Question 13

Evaluate nativism

Answer 13

+: it removes the blame from families/patients with disorders. -: it could lead to the application of eugenic policies

Question 14

Evaluate empiricism

Answer 14

+: behaviour shaping has application in therapy. -: it could lead to a society in which behaviour is controlled and manipulated by the state (1984)

Question 15

Give one example of a ‘nature’ piece of research, and one of a ‘nurture’ piece

Answer 15

Nature: OCD explained as an abnormality in the frontal lobes of the brain. Nurture: operant conditioning explains why babies cry to receive food

Question 16

Give two examples of interactionist pieces of research

Answer 16

Aggression (MAOA gene vs criminal environment) and attachment type (innate temperament vs parenting style)

Question 17

Explain the effect of epigenetics

Answer 17

The environment can leave epigenetic ‘marks’ on our DNA, turning genes on or off. These marks can survive in sex cells and be passed down generations.

Question 18

Give three causes of cultural bias

Answer 18

Using samples exclusively from one isolated culture, conducting cross-cultural research using an imposed etic, inappropriately generalising findings from one culture to another

Question 19

Give three consequences of cultural bias

Answer 19

Discrimination and stereotyping, misrepresentation of certain cultures, exaggeration/minimisation of differences between cultures

Question 20

Give four ways of overcoming cultural bias

Answer 20

Abolishing the broad-brush collectivist-individualist distinction, conducting cross-cultural research, considering the affect of the cultural backgrounds of research participants, increasing cultural variety in research psychologists

Question 21

Give one example of an imposed etic

Answer 21

IQ tests were developed in the West according to the Western account of intelligence. This account values speed, in contrast with, for example, the Ugandan account which values careful, slow deliberation. Testing IQ in other cultures using Western IQ tests is an example of an imposed etic.

Question 22

Give one example of ethnocentrism

Answer 22

Ainsworth defined the ideal, ‘secure’ attachment according to American child-rearing practises. One feature of this type was moderate separation-anxiety. This lead to the misinterpretation of the parenting quality of Germans, whose children showed little separation-anxiety. This difference was not due to German mothers being cold or rejecting, but simply due to cultural differences.

Question 23

Explain the difference between cultural differences and cultural bias

Answer 23

Cultural differences are an inevitable feature of societies, but only become biased when these differences are ignored or misinterpreted

Question 24

What are two issues which arise when conducting cross-cultural research?

Answer 24

1. Some cultures are more familiar with research tradition than others, which can lead to demand characteristics, 2. It may be difficult to operationalise variables in the same way across cultures

Question 25

Give four ways in which the research process involves gender bias

Answer 25

1. Research questions reflect male interests, 2. Male lead researchers more likely to be published, 3. Studies finding gender differences more likely to be published, 4. Lab experiments put females in inequitable positions

Question 26

Give two examples of biological reductionism

Answer 26

Depression reduced to serotonin levels, aggression reduced to the MAOA gene

Question 27

Give two examples of environmental reductionism

Answer 27

Acquisition of phobias reduced to classical conditioning, attachment reduced to cupboard love theory

Question 28

Explain the humanistic approach as a holistic theory

Answer 28

The approach focuses on the ‘self’ (actual self and ideal self, self-actualisation) without reducing it to constituent parts

Question 29

Give two arguments supporting reductionism

Answer 29

1. Breaking behaviour down means it can be scientifically tested (using operationalised variables), 2. Recognising biological explanations has had many applications (e.g. drug therapies)

Question 30

Give two arguments against reductionism

Answer 30

1. Through reducing behaviour we are oversimplifying it and losing something valuable, 2. Different approaches need to be combined holistically to achieve complete explanations

Question 31

Give two arguments supporting holism

Answer 31

1. There are aspects of behaviour which only emerge when the individual is studied as a whole, 2. There are aspects of behaviour which only emerge in group context (e.g. conformity)

Question 32

Give two arguments against holism

Answer 32

1. It cannot be rigorously tested and so can become vague and speculative, 2. It is difficult to determine the relative effect of individual factors

Question 33

Give a practical application of reductionism

Answer 33

Reducing schizophrenia to an imbalance of dopamine has lead to the development of effective antipsychotics

Question 34

Give a practical application of holism

Answer 34

Explaining schizophrenia through dysfunction in the family as a whole has lead to the development of successful family therapies

Question 35

Give a complete example of the ethical issues arising from a piece of socially sensitive research

Answer 35

Research into the schizophenogenic mother > parents are blamed for their child’s schizophrenia > increased removal of children from homes with a ‘schizophrenogenic mother’ > research based on subjective observation

Question 36

What is the consequence of ignoring the implications of socially sensitive research? +example

Answer 36

Minority groups are misrepresented (e.g. evolutionary explanations of relationships reinforce the stereotype of women as child-rearers and men as bread-winners)

Question 37

What is the consequence of ignoring the uses of socially sensitive research? +example

Answer 37

It is used inappropriately in public policy (e.g. research into schizophrenia supporting deinstitutionalisation leading to increased pressure on families of mentally ill patients)

Question 38

What is the consequence of ignoring the validity of socially sensitive research? +example

Answer 38

Invalid/biased research is applied in real life (e.g. Bowlby’s research into maternal deprivation encouraging mothers to reduce their working hours to look after children)

Question 39

How can we avoid the misrepresentation of minority groups from socially sensitive research?

Answer 39

By considering the agenda driving research, and the researcher being reflexive

Question 40

How can we avoid the inappropriate use of socially sensitive research?

Answer 40

By considering who could gain from the publication of research, and the treatment of data

Question 41

How can we avoid the application of invalid socially sensitive research?

Answer 41

Through rigorous peer review

Question 42

Give a benefit of socially sensitive research

Answer 42

Studying underrepresented groups and ‘taboo’ topics can promote greater understanding and reduce prejudice

Question 43

Give an example of the benefits of socially sensitive research

Answer 43

Research into eyewitness testimony has reduced the view that it is infallible, reducing the risk of false imprisonment

Question 44

Which of the approaches are nomothetic?

Answer 44

Biological, cognitive, and behaviourist

Question 45

Which of the approaches are idiographic?

Answer 45

Humanistic

Question 46

Which approach combines nomothetic and idiographic methodology?

Answer 46

Psychodynamic

Question 47

Which methods are associated with the nomothetic approach?

Answer 47

Experiments, formulating and testing hypotheses, statistical analysis, quantitative research

Question 48

Which methods are associated with the idiographic approach?

Answer 48

Case studied, unstructured interviews, self-report methods, qualitative research

Question 49

Give two strengths of the nomothetic approach

Answer 49

1. Methods are scientific and have good control, 2. Establishing norms of behaviour has helped in predicting and controlling behaviour

Question 50

Give two limitations of the nomothetic approach

Answer 50

1. Produces findings which may not be universally applicable, 2.Overlooks the richness of human experience by reducing people to numbers

Question 51

Give two strengths of the idiographic approach

Answer 51

1. In depth methods provide a complete account of the individual, 2. Can shed light on general laws or challenge them

Question 52

Give two limitations of the idiographic approach

Answer 52

1. Generalising from case studies can be problematic, 2. Methods are unscientific and often affected by bias and subjectivity