Issues and debates (general) Flashcards
Give one example of each type of determinism
Dopamine hypothesis (biological), differential association theory (environmental), the inadequate superego (psychic)
Explain why the natural sciences are deterministic
Science is based on the assumption that things can be consistently reduced to cause and effect relationships, and relies on this regularity to make predictions and laws
Give two supportive arguments for determinism
It is consistent with the aims of science (so is scientific), and through predicting human behaviour we have been able to beneficially control it (e.g. in therapy)
Give two arguments against determinism
It is unfalsifiable, and hard determinism conflicts with the assumption made by our legal system that criminals are responsible for their actions
Give two supportive arguments for free will
It has face validity (it feels like we have it), and Roberts et al found that people with an internal LOC tend to be mentally healthy, so even if we don’t have free will, just thinking that we do is beneficial
Give two arguments against free will
Chun Siong Soon et al found that brain activity signifying having made a decision appears up to 10 seconds before the individual is conscious of having made that choice, and surely no one would freely choose to have a mental illness
Which approach is most closely linked with the notion of free will?
The humanistic approach (humans as self-determining active agents free to determine their own development)
Give two causes of gender bias
Male only samples in psychological research, too much emphasis placed on biological differences between the sexes (ignoring cultural/external influences)
Give four consequences of gender bias
One gender is misrepresented, the needs of one gender is ignored, one gender is de-valued, stereotyping (attitude) and discrimination (behaviour)
Give three ways of overcoming gender bias
Reflexivity, using mixed gender samples, considering social context as well as biology, valuing differences and avoiding comparisons between the genders
Give one example of alpha bias and three of beta bias
Alpha bias: according to the psychodynamic approach, in resolving the Oedipus complex, boys develop a stronger sense of morality than girls. Beta bias: Milgram, Asch and Zimbardo all used all-male samples
List the approaches from most nativist to most empiricist
Biological, psychodynamic, cognitive, humanistic, behaviourist
Evaluate nativism
+: it removes the blame from families/patients with disorders. -: it could lead to the application of eugenic policies
Evaluate empiricism
+: behaviour shaping has application in therapy. -: it could lead to a society in which behaviour is controlled and manipulated by the state (1984)
Give one example of a ‘nature’ piece of research, and one of a ‘nurture’ piece
Nature: OCD explained as an abnormality in the frontal lobes of the brain. Nurture: operant conditioning explains why babies cry to receive food
Give two examples of interactionist pieces of research
Aggression (MAOA gene vs criminal environment) and attachment type (innate temperament vs parenting style)
Explain the effect of epigenetics
The environment can leave epigenetic ‘marks’ on our DNA, turning genes on or off. These marks can survive in sex cells and be passed down generations.
Give three causes of cultural bias
Using samples exclusively from one isolated culture, conducting cross-cultural research using an imposed etic, inappropriately generalising findings from one culture to another
Give three consequences of cultural bias
Discrimination and stereotyping, misrepresentation of certain cultures, exaggeration/minimisation of differences between cultures
Give four ways of overcoming cultural bias
Abolishing the broad-brush collectivist-individualist distinction, conducting cross-cultural research, considering the affect of the cultural backgrounds of research participants, increasing cultural variety in research psychologists
Give one example of an imposed etic
IQ tests were developed in the West according to the Western account of intelligence. This account values speed, in contrast with, for example, the Ugandan account which values careful, slow deliberation. Testing IQ in other cultures using Western IQ tests is an example of an imposed etic.
Give one example of ethnocentrism
Ainsworth defined the ideal, ‘secure’ attachment according to American child-rearing practises. One feature of this type was moderate separation-anxiety. This lead to the misinterpretation of the parenting quality of Germans, whose children showed little separation-anxiety. This difference was not due to German mothers being cold or rejecting, but simply due to cultural differences.
Explain the difference between cultural differences and cultural bias
Cultural differences are an inevitable feature of societies, but only become biased when these differences are ignored or misinterpreted
What are two issues which arise when conducting cross-cultural research?
- Some cultures are more familiar with research tradition than others, which can lead to demand characteristics, 2. It may be difficult to operationalise variables in the same way across cultures
Give four ways in which the research process involves gender bias
- Research questions reflect male interests, 2. Male lead researchers more likely to be published, 3. Studies finding gender differences more likely to be published, 4. Lab experiments put females in inequitable positions
Give two examples of biological reductionism
Depression reduced to serotonin levels, aggression reduced to the MAOA gene
Give two examples of environmental reductionism
Acquisition of phobias reduced to classical conditioning, attachment reduced to cupboard love theory
Explain the humanistic approach as a holistic theory
The approach focuses on the ‘self’ (actual self and ideal self, self-actualisation) without reducing it to constituent parts
Give two arguments supporting reductionism
- Breaking behaviour down means it can be scientifically tested (using operationalised variables), 2. Recognising biological explanations has had many applications (e.g. drug therapies)
Give two arguments against reductionism
- Through reducing behaviour we are oversimplifying it and losing something valuable, 2. Different approaches need to be combined holistically to achieve complete explanations
Give two arguments supporting holism
- There are aspects of behaviour which only emerge when the individual is studied as a whole, 2. There are aspects of behaviour which only emerge in group context (e.g. conformity)
Give two arguments against holism
- It cannot be rigorously tested and so can become vague and speculative, 2. It is difficult to determine the relative effect of individual factors
Give a practical application of reductionism
Reducing schizophrenia to an imbalance of dopamine has lead to the development of effective antipsychotics
Give a practical application of holism
Explaining schizophrenia through dysfunction in the family as a whole has lead to the development of successful family therapies
Give a complete example of the ethical issues arising from a piece of socially sensitive research
Research into the schizophenogenic mother > parents are blamed for their child’s schizophrenia > increased removal of children from homes with a ‘schizophrenogenic mother’ > research based on subjective observation
What is the consequence of ignoring the implications of socially sensitive research? +example
Minority groups are misrepresented (e.g. evolutionary explanations of relationships reinforce the stereotype of women as child-rearers and men as bread-winners)
What is the consequence of ignoring the uses of socially sensitive research? +example
It is used inappropriately in public policy (e.g. research into schizophrenia supporting deinstitutionalisation leading to increased pressure on families of mentally ill patients)
What is the consequence of ignoring the validity of socially sensitive research? +example
Invalid/biased research is applied in real life (e.g. Bowlby’s research into maternal deprivation encouraging mothers to reduce their working hours to look after children)
How can we avoid the misrepresentation of minority groups from socially sensitive research?
By considering the agenda driving research, and the researcher being reflexive
How can we avoid the inappropriate use of socially sensitive research?
By considering who could gain from the publication of research, and the treatment of data
How can we avoid the application of invalid socially sensitive research?
Through rigorous peer review
Give a benefit of socially sensitive research
Studying underrepresented groups and ‘taboo’ topics can promote greater understanding and reduce prejudice
Give an example of the benefits of socially sensitive research
Research into eyewitness testimony has reduced the view that it is infallible, reducing the risk of false imprisonment
Which of the approaches are nomothetic?
Biological, cognitive, and behaviourist
Which of the approaches are idiographic?
Humanistic
Which approach combines nomothetic and idiographic methodology?
Psychodynamic
Which methods are associated with the nomothetic approach?
Experiments, formulating and testing hypotheses, statistical analysis, quantitative research
Which methods are associated with the idiographic approach?
Case studied, unstructured interviews, self-report methods, qualitative research
Give two strengths of the nomothetic approach
- Methods are scientific and have good control, 2. Establishing norms of behaviour has helped in predicting and controlling behaviour
Give two limitations of the nomothetic approach
- Produces findings which may not be universally applicable, 2.Overlooks the richness of human experience by reducing people to numbers
Give two strengths of the idiographic approach
- In depth methods provide a complete account of the individual, 2. Can shed light on general laws or challenge them
Give two limitations of the idiographic approach
- Generalising from case studies can be problematic, 2. Methods are unscientific and often affected by bias and subjectivity
