Forensics (definitions) Flashcards
Dark figure
The difference between the number of crimes committed and the number of crimes recorded by police
Official statistics
Figures based on the number of crimes that are reported to and recorded by police
Victim surveys
A questionnaire that asks a random sample of people whether they have been victims of crime over the past year and whether they have reported said crimes
Offender surveys
A self-report method that requires likely offenders to record all the crimes they have committed over a specified period of time
Offender profiling
A tool used to help investigators narrow the list of likely suspects when solving a crime
The top-down approach
The US method (a.k.a. the typology method) involving matching what is known about the crime and offender to a pre-existing template - either organised or disorganised
Organised offender
An offender who plans their crime, maintains a high level of control during it, leaves little evidence behind, and is intelligent, sexually and socially competent, in a skilled profession, and often married with children.
Disorganised offender
An offender who commits spontaneous crime, with little control, usually leaving evidence and the body at the scene, and is unintelligent, in unskilled employment, with a history of failed relationships, and often living alone
The bottom-up approach
The UK method involving using evidence from the crime scene to develop a data-driven profile of the offender
Investigative psychology
A form of bottom-up profiling that matches evidence from the crime scene to statistical analysis of offending behaviour to reveal important details about the offender
Inter personal coherence
The idea that the criminal behaves in a similar way during the crime as they do in more everyday situations, including how they interact with the victim
Forensic awareness
The extent to which the criminal is aware of investigative procedures and tries to ‘cover their tracks’, resulting from being the subject of police interrogation previously
Geographical profiling
A form of bottom-up profiling based on the idea that the location of an offender’s base and future crimes can be revealed by the location of their previous crimes
Jeopardy surface
A calculated area in which is it likely that the offender lives/will strike next
The marauder
An offender who commits crime in close proximity to their own home
The commuter
An offender who travels to commit crime far away from their own home
Least effort principle
The idea that crimes will be committed where it involves the least effort to get to them
Distance decay
The idea that crimes decrease in frequency the further the offender travels from their home
Buffer zone
The idea that a criminal will operate outside of a ‘buffer zone’ around their home to avoid being recognised
MAOA
A gene which controls serotonin and dopamine levels in the brain and has been linked to aggression
CDH13
A gene which has been linked to substance abuse and attention deficit disorder
Antisocial personality disorder
A disorder characterised by reduced emotional responses and a lack of empathy for the feelings of others. It characterises many convicted criminals.
The criminal personality
Someone who is extroverted, neurotic, and psychotic
Stage 1 of moral reasoning
Rules are obeyed to avoid punishment
Stage 2 of moral reasoning
Rules are obeyed for personal gain
Stage 3 of moral reasoning
Rules are obeyed for approval
Stage 4 of moral reasoning
Rules are obeyed to maintain social order
Stage 5 of moral reasoning
Rules are obeyed if they are impartial; democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others
Stage 6 of moral reasoning
The individual establishes his or her own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles
Cognitive distortions
Faulty, biased or irrational ways of thinking which mean we perceive things inaccurately
Hostile attribution bias
The tendency to misinterpret situations and behaviours as aggressive/threatening when they are not
Minimalisation
The tendency to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence, a strategy used to deal with guilt
Weak superego
The absence of a same sex parent means that the superego is undeveloped and the child does not feel guilt
Deviant superego
When the same sex parent has immoral standards of behaviour, leading to internalisation of immoral attitudes
Over-harsh superego
The superego is so strong that the individual unconsciously seeks punishment to relieve them of their overwhelming guilt
General deterrence
Sending a message to members of society that crime will not be tolerated to reduce offending rates
Individual deterrence
Putting off the individual from reoffending through the unpleasant prison experience
Incapacitation
Removing the offender from society to prevent them from reoffending
Retribution
Inflicting proportional suffering on the offender as ‘pay back’ for their crime
Rehabilitation
Reforming the offender through training and treatment so that they are better adjusted upon release
Institutionalisation
Having adapted to the norms and routine of prison life, the offender is unable to function on the outside
Prisonisation
The offender is encouraged to adopt an ‘inmate code’ which would be deemed unacceptable outside the walls of the institution
Recidivism
The tendency to resort back to offending behaviour upon release from prison (57% of offenders will reoffend within 1 year in the UK)
Custodial sentencing
A sentence determined by a judge in court to be carried out in prison or another closed institution, such as a young offender’s institution or psychiatric hospital.
Post incarceration syndrome
A psychological effect of prison with symptoms including PTSD, institutionalisation, and alienation
Token economy
A method of changing an offender’s behaviour in prison which involves reinforcing their desirable behaviours with tokens (secondary reinforcers) which can be exchanged for rewards such as yard time, phone calls, or food (primary reinforcers)
Cognitive preparation
The offender reflects on the triggers of past aggressive behaviour and assesses whether their responses have been rational
Skill acquisition
The offender is introduced to cognitive, behavioural, and physiological skills and techniques of controlling their anger
Application practise
The offender and therapist re-enact anger-provoking scenarios in a safe environment, and appropriate responses are practised and positively reinforced
