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A2 AQA Psychology > Forensics (general) > Flashcards

Forensics (general) Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline 3 problems in defining crime

A

Not all acts that break the law are punished, and what is considered criminal varies over time and between cultures.

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2
Q

Give 4 reasons as to why the ‘dark figure’ exists

A
  1. the victim may not want to report the crime
  2. the victim may not be able to report the crime
  3. the victim may not know they are a victim of crime
  4. some crime reported to the police may not be taken seriously enough to be recorded
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3
Q

Give one strength and one weakness of official statistics

A

Strength: large scale, weakness: the dark figure

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4
Q

Give one strength and one weakness of victim surveys

A

Strength: includes crime not reported to the police, weakness: relies on accurate recall

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5
Q

Give one strength and one weakness of offender surveys

A

Strength: gives insight into the number of criminals responsible for crime, weakness: relies on the offender being truthful and accurate

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6
Q

What problem does the case of Parks present?

A

Parks assaulted his father-in-law and killed his mother-in-law, but claimed that he was asleep during the entire incident. He was acquitted of the crimes as EEG readings were consistent with his defence. This highlights the difficulty in defining the mental state someone has to be in for their actions to be criminal.

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7
Q

How did the FBI create the organised and disorganised offender types? What issue arises from this?

A

By conducting in-depth interviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers. It has been argued that this is an unrepresentative sample, and relies on truth and good memory from criminals.

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8
Q

What is one problem with the organised and disorganised offender types?

A

They are not always mutually exclusive. Often crimes will have organised and disorganised features, meaning that it is difficult to classify them as one or the other.

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9
Q

Explain what Canter et al found about the organised and disorganised distinction

A

They compared data from 100 murders with the organised and disorganised categories, but found little evidence of multiple characteristics that were consistently present together in the disorganised category. This suggests that the disorganised category is not meaningful.

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10
Q

Outline what Pinnizzotto found about the effectiveness of top-down profiling

A

Top-down profiling identified the suspect in only 15 of 192 cases, but helped to focus the investigation in 148, saving days of work.

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11
Q

What are the 4 stages of constructing an FBI profile?

A

Data assimilation, crime scene classification, crime reconstruction, and profile generation

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12
Q

Outline the assumption of geographical profiling

A

That the serial offender will commit crimes in areas they are familiar with, creating a ‘centre of gravity’ and forming a circle of offences around their home

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13
Q

Outline Canter and Heritage’s research into investigative psychology

A

Using smallest space analysis, they looked at the co-occurrence of behaviours within 66 rapes. They found 2 distinct behavioural types; pseudo-intimacy and objectifying. This distinction can help to link multiple crimes to one offender. This study shows the value of the application of statistical techniques.

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14
Q

Outline Canter and Lundrigan’s research into geographical profiling

A

Using smallest space analysis, they found spatial consistency in 120 murder cases. The location of the offender’s base was invariably in the centre of the pattern of offences. This study exemplifies the validity of geographical profiling.

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15
Q

How does the case of Rachel Nickell challenge the effectiveness of the bottom-up approach

A

When Rachel Nickell was murdered, a criminal profiler linked the crime to a local man, who was then put at the centre of a ‘honey trap’ in which he was encouraged to confess to the crime by undercover police. 16 years later the true murderer was found, who was previously ruled out of the profile, being a few inches too tall. This shows how narrowing the field of enquiry too far can be dangerous.

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16
Q

Outline 3 differences between the top-down and bottom-up approaches

A
  1. The top-down approach is based on a pre-existing typology
  2. The top-down approach is not driven so directly by data
  3. The bottom-up approach is applicable to more types of crime
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17
Q

Explain the basis of the atavistic form theory

A

Lombroso thought that criminals were a primitive sub-species who were biologically different to non-criminals. He claimed that their undeveloped, savage nature meant that they would inevitably turn to crime.

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18
Q

Give examples of atavistic characteristics

A

A narrow, sloping brow, a strong jaw, high cheekbones, facial asymmetry, and dark skin.

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19
Q

Outline Lombroso’s research into the atavistic form

A

He examined the heads of 4222 convicts and found that a number of physical anomalies were indicators of criminality. He concluded that 40% of criminal acts could be accounted for by atavistic characteristics.

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20
Q

What is one weakness of Lombroso’s research into the atavistic form?

A

He had no control group so could not compare the proportion of atavistic features of criminals and non-criminals. Research by Goring included a control group and found contradictory results.

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21
Q

Outline the suggestion that Lombroso’s theory supports eugenics

A

Lombroso suggested that criminals are born, not made. Hence his work may lead to the idea that certain people, crucially including those with dark skin, should be prevented from reproducing in order to reduce crime.

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22
Q

What is one strength of Lombroso’s atavistic form theory?

A

It directed the emphasis in crime research away from moralistic discourse (i.e. criminals as wicked and weak-minded) towards a more scientific, genetic approach.

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23
Q

Explain how a faulty MAOA gene can cause aggression

A

When the MAOA gene is faulty, less of the MAOA enzyme is produced, leading to the production of more adrenaline and noradrenaline

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24
Q

Outline Lange’s study into the role of genetics in criminality

A

Lange studied 13 MZ twins and 17 DZs where one of the twins in each pairs had served time in prison. He found that 10 of the MZ twins but only 2 of the DZs had a co-twin who had also served time. This suggests that genes play a significant role in offending behaviour.

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25
Q

State the findings from Christiansen’s replication of Lange’s study

A

He conducted a similar twin study with a larger sample and found concordance rates of 33% for MZs compared to 12% for DZs.

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26
Q

Outline Raine’s research into neural explanations of criminality

A

He compared the volume of prefrontal grey and white matter in the brains of 21 people with ADP and 21 without, as well as their brain activity. He found reduced activity and an 11% reduction of grey matter in participants with ADP. This supports the neural explanation of criminality.

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27
Q

What is one strength and one weakness of Raine’s research?

A

Strength: it used scientific techniques (MRI scans), weakness: it has a small sample size

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28
Q

Outline the Danish adoption study conducted by Mednick et al

A

They studied the number of court convictions of the adoptive and biological parents of over 13000 Danish adoptees. They found that when neither set of parents had a court conviction, the rate of criminality was 13.5%, when just the biological parents had a conviction, it was 20%, and when both sets did, it rose to 24.5%. This shows that both genetics and environment affect criminality.

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29
Q

Explain the biological determinism connected with the genetic explanation of criminality

A

If there is such thing as a ‘criminal gene’, then a criminal would not be choosing with their free will to commit crime. This absolves them of moral responsibility for their crimes, which has problematic implications for punishment in the legal system.

30
Q

How can levels of neurotransmitters affect offending?

A

High levels or noradrenaline and dopamine, and low levels of serotonin make offending more likely

31
Q

Explain the problem of causation between genes and criminality

A

It may not be the case that genes cause criminality. Genes cause emotional instability, mental illness, social deprivation, and poverty, all of which cause criminality in themselves.

32
Q

Why is the criminal personality extroverted neurotic?

A

Extroverts constantly seek stimulation, like risk taking, and do not learn from their mistakes. Neurotic people are nervous, emotional and unstable. Psychotic people are aggressive and lack empathy.

33
Q

What is the biological basis of the criminal personality?

A

The basis of extraversion is the level of cortical arousal, and the basis of neuroticism is the ANS

34
Q

How has the biological basis of Eyesenck’s theory been challenged?

A

EEGs have found little difference between the brains of extroverts and introverts, and Hispanic and African American offenders tend to be less extroverted

35
Q

Compare the findings of 2 studies into Eyesenck’s theory

A

Eyesenck and Eyesenck found higher levels of ENP in offenders than controls, whereas Farrington et al found higher levels of P but not E or N.

36
Q

Which explanations of offending are guilty of biological determinism?

A

Atavistic form, genetic and neural, and Eyesenck

37
Q

Which level of morality are offenders most likely to fall under?

A

The preconventional level - stages 1 and 2, which is typical of younger children

38
Q

Why have low levels of moral reasoning been linked to criminality?

A

Those with low levels may commit crime if they can avoid punishment or gain personally from it. Those with higher levels, on the other hand, sympathise more with the rights of others.

39
Q

Describe the curvilinear relationship between moral reasoning and crime suggested by Langdon

A

Stage 2 is most likely to offend, more so than stages 1 and 3. This is because stage 2 prioritises their own needs whereas stage 1 follows rules and stage 3 considers others.

40
Q

Outline supporting research into the link between moral reasoning and criminality

A

Palmer and Hollington found that, when given moral dilemma- related questions, the delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquents

41
Q

What is one strength and one weakness of Kohlberg’s cognitive explanation?

A

Strength: it has application in cognitive bias modification therapy (e.g. for sex offenders), weakness: it applies more to certain crimes (e.g. robbery) than others (e.g. impulsive assault)

42
Q

Outline research done into HAB

A

Holtzworth-Munroe and Hutchinson found that, when shown videos of difficult marital situations, violent men were more likely to attribute hostility to the women than nonviolent men

43
Q

Outline differential association theory

A

A person will go on to offend if they are surrounded by more pro-criminal than anti-criminal attitudes. The offender will also learn criminal acts from the group they are socialised into, as well as rationalisation for crimes.

44
Q

Explain one strength of DAT

A

It can explain all types of crime, including ‘white-collar’ crime as working class and middle class criminals share different, but equally deviant norms and values.

45
Q

Explain one weakness of DAT

A

It is unscientific as it is difficult to test and measure pro or anti criminal attitudes, or find the point at which one outweighs the other.

46
Q

Outline Farrington et al’s research into DAT

A

They did a longitudinal study into men from a working class area of London. 41% went on to commit at least one offence, key risk factors including family criminality, poverty and poor parenting. These factors all link to socialisation, supporting DAT.

47
Q

How does the superego develop?

A

It develops through resolving the oedipus/electra complex in the phallic stage. Boys resolve it through fear of castration and girls resolve it though fear of becoming distant from their mother.

48
Q

How does maternal deprivation theory link to criminality?

A

A consequence of maternal deprivation is affectionless psychopathy, which has been linked to criminality by Bowlby’s 44 thieves study

49
Q

What prediction of the psychodynamic approach is not supported by evidence?

A

That women have weaker superegos than men, and are therefore less moral and more likely to commit crime (based on the idea that boys are more motivated to resolve their complex through fear of castration). This is not supported by the fact that 95% of inmates are male.

50
Q

What are two weaknesses of the psychodynamic explanation of criminality?

A
  1. The concepts involved in it are unfalsifiable, meaning that it is unscientific, 2. It predicts that same sex parents and single parents should raise criminals, which research by Drexler disputes
51
Q

What are 4 psychological effects of custodial sentencing?

A

Stress and depression, institutionalisation, prisonisation, and ‘post-incarceration syndrome’

52
Q

Outline 2 pieces of research done into the psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

Bartol found that suicide rates are 15 times higher in prison than in the general population, and that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison report psychotic symptoms. Zimbardo’s experiment evidenced the negative psychological effect of prison on even people deemed ‘mentally stable’.

53
Q

Give 2 limitations of custodial sentencing

A
  1. The prison environment allows inmates to learn and share criminal ‘tricks of the trade’. 2. Its inflexible nature does not allow for how prison affects different people differently, depending on their age, social class etc
54
Q

Give 1 strength of custodial sentencing

A

The nature of prison means that training and treatment programmes can be implemented, such as education to gain qualifications, therapy, and anger management

55
Q

What approach is behaviour modification based on?

A

The behaviourist approach, in particular operant conditioning in token economies

56
Q

Explain the process of changing behaviour with token economies

A

The desirable behaviour is identified, broken down into small steps (increments) and a baseline measure is established. Officers selectively reinforce individual offenders based on their targets and oversee their progress.

57
Q

Outline research done into the effectiveness of behaviour modification

A

Hobbs and Holt implemented a token economy with 125 young offenders across 3 different units and found a significant increase in the frequency of target behaviours in all 3 units compared to a 4th control unit.

58
Q

Evaluate research done into the effectiveness of behaviour modification

A

Hobbs and Holt’s study had good inter-rater reliability and was carried out over a long period of time. However their sample was limited to young boys, meaning that the findings may be ungeneralisable to the general prison population.

59
Q

Give 2 limitations of behaviour modification

A
  1. It has little rehabilitative value as learned behaviours are quickly lost outside prison with no motivation to maintain them (extinction). 2. The ‘learning’ is superficial - offenders ‘play along’ for the rewards without experiencing any true change of character
60
Q

Give 2 strengths of behaviour modification

A
  1. It is easy to implement due to the nature of prison, and the little officer training it requires. 2. It is cheaper to run than other methods such as anger management.
61
Q

Outline Ellis’ ABCD model in terms of anger management

A

A: activating event which triggers anger
B: beliefs (often irrational) regarding the event
C: consequences, e.g. anger, violence
D: disputing interpretation of the event (with therapist)

62
Q

Outline two pieces of supporting research into the effectiveness of anger management programmes

A

Keen et al studied young offenders involved in an anger management program and found that offenders reported increased awareness of anger issues, and increased self-control. Ireland found that 92% of anger management recipients showed improvement in contrast with 0% of a control group.

63
Q

Discuss the long term effectiveness of anger management programmes

A

Blackburn found that positive behavioural changes do not persist in the long term. This may be due to the artificial nature of the role play aspect of the therapy.

64
Q

Give one strength and one weakness of anger management

A

Strength: it addresses the root cause of the offending behaviour rather than superficially addressing it. Weakness: it is expensive to run and requires trained specialists, which means that it is not available in all prisons.

65
Q

What problem with anger management has more recently been brought to attention?

A

Anger management schemes are not appropriate for offenders who commit premeditated violent offences. In fact, such schemes can be manipulated to shorten a sentence while not being effective at reducing anger.

66
Q

Outline the process of a restorative justice meeting

A

The offender and victim are invited to a supervised meeting, either face to face, via video chat, or through letters. In the meeting the victim is able to tell the offender how the crime has affected them, and the offender is able to apologise.

67
Q

How effective is restorative justice?

A

According to government research, restorative justice provides an 85% victim satisfaction rate and a 14% reduction in re-offending rates.

68
Q

What is the aim of restorative justice?

A

The victim is able to feel empowered, recover from the crime, and gain closure. The offender is able to see the impact of their crime and take responsibility for it.

69
Q

Outline research done into the effectiveness of restorative justice

A

Sherman and Strang found reduced re-offending rates, reduced PTSD levels in victims, and greater satisfaction from both parties after restorative justice than regular custodial sentencing.

70
Q

Give three criticisms of restorative justice

A
  1. It relies on the offender feeling genuine remorse and the victim being willing to attend the meeting
  2. It is expensive to run as it requires specialists
  3. It may be seen as a ‘soft option’ which the offender can use to shorten their sentence

A2 AQA Psychology (12 decks)

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