Issues and debates

Question 1

What is gender bias?

Answer 1

When psychological theories do not represent the experiences and behaviors of one gender (usually girls and women not represented).

Question 2

What is universality?

Answer 2

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing. This idea is threatened by gender bias.

Question 3

What is androcentrism?

Answer 3

Where normal behavior is equivalent to men’s behavior and abnormal behavior is women’s behavior.

Question 4

What is a gynocentric study?

Answer 4

Conducted on females but generalised to males.

Question 5

What is alpha bias?

Answer 5

Psychological research that exaggerates gender differences. Heightens value of males and devalues females.

Question 6

Example of alpha bias in origins

Answer 6

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory suggests femininity is failed masculinity and we can never believe that the two sexes are equal. Horney said it is wrong to think that women are envious of men’s attributes but they are jealous of social class. There is also womb envy where males are envious of females ability to have children and they compensated by achieving in other domains.

Question 7

What is beta bias?

Answer 7

Psychological research that minimizes gender differences. Findings from one gender applies to everyone.

Question 8

Examples of beta bias in biopsych

Answer 8

Fight or flight research conducted on male animals assuming females act the same.
Taylor et al- females tend and befriend.

Question 9

Evaluation of gender bias

Answer 9

1. Jacklin concluded girls have a better verbal ability and boys have better spatial ability due to biological differences in the brain. Soel et al used scanning techniques found no gender differences. This suggests we should be weary of accepting research as biological facts when it may be explained better as social stereotypes.
   -COUNTERPOINT:Ingalhalikar found social stereotypes where women are better then men at multitasking may be due to their hemispheres being better connected. There may be biological differences yet we should be weary their effect on behaviour.
2. Women are underrepresented in research eg in uni departments. This is because research is more likely to be conducted by males eg a male researcher may expect female participants to be irrational and to underperform. This suggests institutional structures and methods of psychology may produce gender based findings.
3. Gender biased research creates misleading assumptions about females and fails to challenge negative stereotypes and validates discriminatory practises. However, modern researchers recognise the effect that assumptions have on their work. Gender bias may add an extra dimension to research.

Question 10

What is cultural bias?

Answer 10

The tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the lens of one’s own culture..

Question 11

What does universality mean?

Answer 11

Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all despite differences of upbringing.

Question 12

What does ethnocentrism mean?

Answer 12

A type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards and values of one’s own culture.

Question 13

What is cultural relativism?

Answer 13

The idea that norms and values as well as ethics and moral standards can only be meaningful and understood with specific social and cultural contexts.

Question 14

What does etic mean?

Answer 14

It involves looking at behaviours in other cultures and identifying universal behaviours.

Question 15

What is an example of etic in social influence?

Answer 15

Berry replicated Asch’s conformity study and found conformity rates change across different cultures.

Question 16

What is imposed etic?

Answer 16

A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain behaviour in another culture.
Eg Ainsworth studied behaviour in USA and applied findings universally.

Question 17

What is the emic approach?

Answer 17

Functions within a culture and identifies behaviours specific to that culture.

Question 18

Evaluation of cultural bias

Answer 18

1. In classic studies such as Milgram’s research, they only used white, middle class US participants whereas replication in other countries produced different results. Collectivist cultures found significantly higher rates of conformity over individualist cultures . This suggests that topics such as social influence should be only applied to individualist cultures.
   -COUNTERPOINT: Individualistic-collectism distinction may no apply due to increasing global media eg Takano and Osaka found 14/15 studies comparing US to Japan found no evidence of individualistic vs collectivist differences which means cultural bias may be much less of an issue now.

2.Ethnic stereotyping- Gould explained how IQ tests lead to eugenic social policies in America. During WW1 they conducted IQ tests on 175 million recruiters which were ethnocentric and so those from the south east Europe and African Americans scored lower and were genetically inferior. This illustrates how cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice towards social groups.

3. Cultural psychology is an emerging field taking on an emic approach. Research is inside a culture alongside local researchers using culturally based techniques. Fewer cultures are considered when comparing differences. This suggests modern psychologists are taking steps to be more mindful of the dangers of cultural bias.

Question 19

How is Milgram’s research culturally bias?

Answer 19

The conclusions were used to explain why people obey around the world, whereas critics have argued that it is not reflective of universal human behaviour. This research could be labelled as ethnocentric as it is conducted with male American participants from the 1960s. Milgram wanted to see whether Americans would be as obedient as German subjects. This suggests the conclusions were affected by cultural relativism, as they are more relevant to the United States in the 1960s. His study could be seen as imposed etic as is a task devised in one culture and used to explain why people obey in other cultures therefore it would be more suitable to adopt an emic approach.

Question 20

What is free will?

Answer 20

The idea that we have choice over our own behaviour. We believe that we are free to choose decisions we make, our behaviour and thoughts.

Question 21

What does determinism mean?

Answer 21

It is the opposite of free will and is the idea that our behaviour and actions, even some thoughts can be determined by other internal and external factors such as environmental influences. All behaviour is determined and predictable.

Question 22

What is soft determinism?

Answer 22

A compromise position

Question 23

What is hard determinism?

Answer 23

All behaviours have causes and these are external or internal events which our outside our control and free will is just an illusion.

Question 24

What is biological determinism?

Answer 24

Behaviour comes from us internally eg genes, hormones

Question 25

What is environmental determinism?

Answer 25

Environmental factors we cannot control eg conditioning

Question 26

What is psychic determinism?

Answer 26

Unconscious forces we cannot control eg innate drive.

Question 27

What does causal explanations mean?

Answer 27

It is a scientific principle which states that everything has a cause (determinism) and the causes can be discovered using techniques such as lab experiments and explained by general laws.