Issues and debates Flashcards
Define cultural bias
Refers to tendency to ignore cultural differences and interpret all phenomena through the ‘lens’ of one’s own culture.
Define ethnocentrism
Judging other cultures by one’s own cultural standards and values. Extreme form = belief in superiority of one’s own culture.
Define universality concerning psychology.
Any underlying characteristic of human beings that is capable of being applied to all, despite differences of experience and upbringing.
AO3: of the individualist-collectivist distinction.
-Often in the past, when psychologists made reference to ‘culture’, they have done so within the context of the individualist-collectivist distinction.
-However, critics have suggested that in the age of globalisation and increased interconnectedness, that such a simplistic distinction no longer applies.
-Yohtaro Takano and Eiko Osaka (1999) found that 14/15 studies that compared the USA and Japan found no evidence of the traditional distinction between individualism and collectivism.
-Therefore, this suggests that cultural bias in research is less of an issue than it once was.
AO3 on cultural bias: limitations of imposed etic.
Berry’s concept of imposed etic is a useful reminder to psychologists of the culturally specific nature of their work.
-However, there are some universal behaviours such as the 7 basic facial expressions, as Ekman’s research suggests.
-Thus, not all psychological research is culturally relative.
-Nonetheless, a full understanding of human behvaiour requires the study of both universals and variation among individuals and groups.
AO3 on cultural bias - views on scientific research
-When conducting research in Western culture the Ps’ familiarity with the general aims and objectives of scientific enquiry is assumed.
-However, the same knowledge and ‘faith’ in scientific testing may not extend to all cultures that don’t have the same experience of scientific research.
-This means that demand characteristics may be exaggerated when working with members of the local population.
Make the case for determinism.
Hint: Determinism consistent with science’s aims.
-Determinism consistent with science’s aims.
-Notion that human behaviour = orderly and obeys laws places psychology on equal footing with other more established sciences.
-Value of such research = prediction and control of human behaviour has led to development of treatments, therapies and behavioural interventions that have benefited many (e.g. managing schizophrenia).
-Schizophrenia - sufferers experience a loss of control over their thoughts and behaviour, casting doubts over concept of ‘free will’. In cases of mental illness - behaviour appears determined.
Make the case against determinism.
Hint: Hard determinism - individual not of behaviour inconsistent with way in which our legal system operates.
Hard determinism - individual not of behaviour inconsistent with way in which our legal system operates.
-Offenders held morally accountable for their actions.
-Determinism - unfalsifiable; based on idea that causes of behaviour always exist.
-Suggests that determinist approach to human behaviour may not bee as scientific as it seems.
Define hard determinism.
Implies that free will isn’t possible as our behaviour is always caused by internal/external events beyond our control.
Define soft determinism.
All events have causes but behaviour can also be determined by conscious choices in absence of coercion.
Define psychic determinism.
Belief that behaviour is caused by unconscious conflicts that we cannot control.
Make the case for free will.
Quotidian experience gives impression that…
Quotidian experience gives impression that we exercise fee will through our choices - face validity; makes cognitive sense.
-People with internal LOC = more mentally healthy.
2000 Roberts et al study demonstrated that teenagers who strongly believe in fatalism are at significantly greater risk of developing depression.
This suggests that, even if we don’t have free will, the fact that we think that we do may positively impact our behaviour.
Make the case against free will.
Hint: Neurological studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free will.
Neurological studies of decision making have revealed evidence against free willl.
Studies by Libet (1981) and Soon et al (2008) have demonstrated that brain activity determining outcome of simple choices may predate our knowledge of having made such a choice.
Define universality.
Any underlying characteristic of humans capable of being applied to all, despite individual differences.
Gender bias.
Tendency to treat one individual/group in a different way to others.
In context of gender bias, psychological research/theory may offer a view that doesn’t justifiably represent the experience and behaviour of men and women.
Define adrocentrism.
Male-centred; when ‘normal’ behaviour is judged by a male standard.
Define alpha bias.
Psychological theories suggest that they’re real and enduring differences between men and women.
These may enhance or undervalue members of either sex.
Define beta bias.
Theories that ignore/minimise differences between sexes.
What are the implications of gender bias?
Hint: Gender-biased research may create misleading…
Gender-biased research may create misleading assumptions about female behaviour; fail to challenge negative stereotypes and validate discriminatory practices.
-May provide scientific ‘justification’ to deny women workplace and wider society opportunities.
-Thus, gender bias is not just a methodological problem but may have damaging consequences which affect the lives and prospects of real women.
Gender bias: sexism within the research process.
Hint: Lack of women appointed at senior research level means that…
Lack of women appointed at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in research questions asked.
-Male researchers more likely to have their work published and studies which find evidence of gender differences more likely to appear in scientific journals that those that don’t.
-Lab experiment (cornerstone of ‘scientific’ enquiry) may further disadvantage women.
-Female Ps placed in an inequitable relationship with usually male researcher with power to label them unreasonable, irrational and unable to complete complex tasks, meaning that psychology may be guilty of institutionalised sexism that creates bias in theory and research.
Gender bias in psychological research:
Feminist commentators have put forward numerous criteria that should be followed…
Feminist commentators have put forward numerous criteria that should be followed to avoid gender bias in research.
-Females should be studied in meaningful real-life contexts, and genuinely participate in research, rather than being the objects of study.
-Diversity within groups of females should be examined, rather than comparisons made between females and males.
-There should also be a greater emphasis on collaborative research methods that collect qualitative data, as opposed to numerical data.
What is the nature-nurture debate?
Concerned with the extent to which aspects of behaviour are the product of (genetically) inherited or (environmentally) acquired characteristics.
Nature-nurture debate: List the 5 different approaches from the most extreme nature side, to interactionist to the most nurture side.
Biological
-psychodynamic
-cognitive
-humanist
-behaviourist.
What is the interactionist approach?
Behaviour often result of interaction between nature and nurture.
-An individual’s characteristics may illicit particular responses in others (e.g. temperament, gender; aggression).
What is the Diathesis-stress model?
Suggests that psychopathology is caused by a biological/genetic vulnerability (diathesis) - only expressed when coupled with environmental trigger (stressor).
What were Tienari et al’s (2004) findings?
Group of studied Finnish adoptees - those most likely to develop schizophrenia had biological relatives with history of disorder and had relationships with their adoptive families that were defined as ‘dysfunctional’.
Support for interactionist approach (neuroplasticity)
What were the findings of Maguire et al’s (2000) Taxi Driver study.
Neural plasticity is another example of how nature and nurture interact. The brain can reorganise itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. Neuroplasticity describes the changes in the structure of the brain (nature), as a result of life experience (nurture).
Structural MRI scans of licensed London taxi drivers were compared with controls who didn’t drive taxis.
-Hippocampal volume correlated with time spent as taxi driver.
-Posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers significantly larger relative of those control subjects.
-Posterior hippocampus stores spatial representation of environment and can expand regionally in people with high dependence on navigational skills.
AO3 on nature-nurture debate.
Constructivism: Genes and environments interact.
The notion that genes and the environment interact is elaborated by constructivism. People create their own ‘nurture’ by actively selecting environments that are appropriate for their ‘nature’.
The environment then affects one’s development.
This is further evidence that it is impossible and illogical to try to separate nature and nurture influences on one’s behaviour.
