Gender Flashcards
Sex-role stereotypes Definition AO1
a set of shared beliefs and expectations within a social group that determine how a man and woman should behave and think
How are sex role stereotypes reinforced? AO1
Parents, society, media, other children… both implicitly (not directly expressed) and explicitly (modelling)
Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Furnham and Farragher (2000)
TV ads, men=autonomous, women= familial role/domestic
reinforce sex role stereotypes
Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Seavey et al.
(1975)
3month old, yellow jumpsuit, 1/3 p’s told baby was female, 1/3 p’s told male and last 1/3 wasn’t told about gender. Rag doll= female, plastic ring= male. Non- specified gender= female p’s interacted more than male p’s and gender was assumed based of physical traits (strong grip= boy, soft= girl).
Adults= differential reinforcement
Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Rubin et al. (1977)
Parent describe baby within 24hours of birth. Boy= alert/strong, girl= soft/delicate.
Parents stereotype children very early despite no no stereotypical behaviour shown.
Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Ingalhaliar et al. (2014)
949 young p’s brain scanned. Female = more connection from right to left side - better multitasking. Male = intense activity in specific parts (cerebellum, motor skills) - better single complex tasks.
Some truth in stereotypes.
Androgyny AO1
Combination of both feminine and masculine traits
Andro= male, gyny= female
Bem introduced concept 1970s, argued traditional views wrong- psychologically more healthy to avoid stereotypes.
M+W should feel free to adopt range of behaviours that suit personality.
BSRI
Bem Sex Role Inventory 1974
Psychological test to measure androgony.
100 American UGs to decide male and female traits
200 traits narrowed down to 40
20= female, 20= male, 20= neutral items
7 point Likert scale
Scored added together and masc and fem scores found
Possible to now test for masculinity+ femininity independently.
HF LM= femenine
HM LF= masculine
HM HF= andrognous
BSRI criticism (Spence et al)
Doesn’t distinguish between types of androgyny
Added Low levels of fem and masc = undifferentiated
Gender schema theory of androgyny
1983
Cognitive difference
Androgynous people respond to situations independent of gender concept whereas a typical sex-type person would use their gender schema
Androgyny better for mental health;
sex roles= constraining
androgoyny= freer cognitive style
BSRI AO3
Lacks Internal Validity
Tests self esteem rather than androgyny
both adjectives = socially desirable, higher scores = higher self esteem
BSRI AO3
Lacks Validity, Artefact of the measurement
Response bias
Liberman & Gaa (1986) 133 grad student, androgynous p’s = higher scores in general compared to those in sex types. Some p’s just have a tendency to pick higher numbers.
Scored maybe an artefact of the measurement rather than representing a true difference.
BSRI AO3
Lacks Temporal Validity
adjectives selected in 1970s
Hoffman and Borders, 400 UGs to rate adjective as masc or fem, only 2 adj (‘masc’ and ‘fem’) were agreed
others couldn’t reach 75% agreement level
people’s attitude change = no longer relevant
Typical Chromosome Patterns
46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs;
Females XX
Males XY
SRY gene
sex-determining region on the Y chromosome, causes primitive gonads to develop into testes at around 3 months after conception
genetic transmission
explains how individuals acquire their sex
Testosterone
Males= 90% more than females
Causes changes prenatally
Released when testes develop at 3 months in womb
Acts on hypothalamus = makes male brain
Masculinisation of brain = development of spatial task areas of brain
Aggression and competitiveness
Larger sexual dimorphic nucleus in males
Oestrogen
female = default gender so no hormone needed in prenatal development
(Shi et al, 2015) = smaller brain size
Secondary sex characteristics, breasts, period
PMT = irritable, emotional
Menstrual cycle = increase blood supply to uterus
Depletion = menopause
Feminisation of brain = more neural connections + female type behaviours (cooperation/sensitivity)
Oxytocin
Love hormone secreted from posterior of pituitary gland = promotes bonding
Oestrogen synergises
Testosterone dampens
Facilitates childbirth, contractions + breast feeding
Increases during sex x5, male = drops after orgasm
Female social behaviour = mate selection, nesting, pair bonding, nurturing and protecting offspring
Dampens fight or flight => tend and befriend
Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3
Biological Determinism
Biology main factor gender? John Money claimed otherwise - should be wrong
Money said David Reimer (botched circumcision) should be raised as a girl but he showed strong resilience and male identity.
(Reiner and Gearhart, 2004)- 16 males born without penis; 2 raised as male, stayed male; 14 raised as female, 8 reassigned themselves to male by 16yo
biology key in gender development
Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3
Importance of other factors
sex doesn’t match external genitalia when abnormal hormones
gender outcome is ‘unpredictable’ - mixture of genes, hormones, sex of rearing and socialisation
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH), XX females have prenatally high levels of androgens - gender assigned at birth accepted by some and rejected by others, unpredictable
nature and nurture is part of it
Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3
Role of culture and social influence
Batista family, Dominican republic, 4 children with female genitalia raised as girls
puberty- large amounts of testosterone caused male genitalia to appear (they were XY but had testosterone insensitivity gene)
new male role accepted easily- community accepted gender fluidity, culture important
more difficult in Western cultures
Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3
Real-world application
understanding intersex conditions = RW app.
in past = surgery for inter sex conditions to be “fixed” with surgery
Now = gender assigned at birth and individual can make informed decision later
Psychological research = improve people’s lives
Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3
Effect of hormones on brain development
Testosterone on brain development
female monkeys exposed to testosterone during prenatal development = later more rough and tumble play + more aggressive
can’t be generalised to humans, human behaviour governed by expectations and choice
women bargaining; those believed to be given does of testosterone = more unfair compared to those told they were given a neutral placebo- shows effect of expectation
hormones effect brain development and behaviour but its not that simple
Kleinfelter’s Syndrome
Males with XXY sex chromosomes, 1/1000 males
Physical; smaller testes, no facial/pubic hair, some breast development, taller with gangly limbs, wider hips, often infertile
Psychological; poor language + reading ability, dyslexia, more passive, shy, lack interest in sex, can’t deal with stress well
Turner’s Syndrome
Females with XO sex chromosomes, 1/2000
Physical; no menstrual cycle, infertile, no breasts, broad chests, webbed neck and low set ears, narrow hip, immature physically
Psychological; higher reading, verbal, language skills. Lower spatial and maths skills. Socially immature, struggle to fit in
Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3
Strength; contribute to understanding of nature-nurture
Compare to chromosome-typical people and find differences between both groups. E.g turners=higher reading
identify what changes chromosomes cause, biology
Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3
Weakness; Issues with concluding that nature have effects on psychology and behaviour
Chromosomal differences in those with disorders and differences in behaviour is not causal. Environment and society my influence these. eg turners = immaturity may be ‘cause they treated immaturely
Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3
Real World Application
Research helps to identify syndromes earlier so treatment can be administered in childhood- more effective than being administered in adulthood.
Testosterone replacement therapy for Klinefelter’s = development of masc traits
Growth hormone of turners = taller in adulthood
Oestrogen replacement therapy = breast development, menstrual cycle + healthy womb
Improve people’s lives
Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3
Weakness; Can’t generalise
Sample is unusual and unrepresentative
individual look different so normally treated differently. 2/3rds unaware they have atypical chromosomes so studies based only on those that are diagnosed.
they be different in an important physical/psychological way.
Nature and nurture difficult to assess when comparing typical and atypical
Kohlberg’s Gender Theory
Cognitive developmental approach
Draws of Piagetian ideas- thinking develops as we age because of physical changes in our brain allowing more complex, abstract thought
Stage theory- has 3 stages
Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory
Gender Labelling/Identity (2-3)
Gender Stability (4-6)
Gender Constancy (7<)
Cognitive Maturation
Naturally progressing through stages as thinking matures
Gender identity/labelling
Correctly label themselves as boy/girl
Can label other people other people as boy/girl and relate to one
No idea of gender stability/constancy- so over time or when appearance changes gender can change too
thinking is “pre-operational”-Piaget- lacks internal logic
Gender Stability
Aware that their own gender is permanent despite time or appearance
But doesn’t apply same logic to others
Engaging in non-stereotypical activities will cause child to change someone’s gender (male nurse = female)
Piaget “Conservation” doesn’t develop until 7yo & “Egocentrism” continues until 7yo
Conservation in gender
Piaget
ability to understand that something remains the same despite changes in outward appearance
gender; changes is superficial appearance will lead child to believe that the gender has changed
Egocentrism
Piaget
inability for a child to see something from someone else’s perspective; they assume that others are experiencing the same as them
gender; can’t differentiate between others and self so if a physical property changed child assumes gender has changed because that’s how they experience it
Gender Constancy
Gender is permanent and fixed over time and appearance for both themselves and others
At this point children learn gender-appropriate behaviours (before this stage there was no point) & seeking same sex role models
Kohlberg’s Theory AO3
Supporting evidence for the three stages
Labelling- (Thompson) 2yo’s 76%, 3yo’s 90% at identifying their sex- accuracy grows when aging
Stability- (Slaby & Frey) Asked questions about gender stability to children “Will you be a mummy or daddy when you grow up?” = didn’t show stability until 3/4yo.
Constancy- (Slaby & Frey) established levels of children constancy by asking questions like; to a boy, “If you wore a dress would you still be a boy?” then played a video with women on the right and men on the left. High levels of constancy = greater interest if same sex role model
Kohlberg’s Theory AO3
Weakness; methodological problems
(Bem) criticised (McConaghy)’s transplant clothes on doll experiment which showed that children of 3-5yo judged gender based on clothes not genitals which supported Kohlberg. (Bem) children are identifying gender from what they have been taught, in society they are taught to look for physical cues
(Martin and Halverson) criticised (Slaybe & Frey) saying that children adopt a pretend mode when answering question they have to explicitly to give answers based of what they believe
Validity of support questioned
Kohlberg’s Theory AO3
Undermining; gender differences
(Slaybe & Frey) boys reach constancy before girls
(Langlois & Downs) boys more likely punished for gender inappropriate behaviour so learn quicker
(Huston) harder to make boys participate in fem activities than vise versa; social learning theory, boys have more powerful role models = greater identification
Kohlberg’s Theory AO3
Constancy at younger age
(Slaybe & Frey) gender constancy can appear as young as 5
Still shows that gender changes over time
Maybe because of increased media exposure, ages in theory need to be adjusted
Kohlberg’s Theory AO3
Undermining; gender appropriate behaviour appears before constancy
(Martin & Little) 4yo’s showed no signs of stability or constancy but showed strong gender stereotypical behaviours.
This aligns more with gender schema theory.
gender schema
set of organised expectations of gender to help us interpret info in the brain
formed through previous experience
Gender Schema Theory
cognitive
first introduced by Bem but then developed by Martin and Halverson (1981)
getting info about gender and gender appropriate behaviours happens before constancy- labelling is enough
schema affects later behaviour esp. memory and attention
Ingroup and Outgroup
Group person identifies with. Same sex ingroup.
+vely evaluates own group and -vely evaluates outgroups
enhances self esteem
works to acquire knowledge about ingroup + avoid behaviours of outgroup
Resilience of gender beliefs
ignore info that isn’t consistent with ingroup beliefs
schema remains fixed and influences retention and memory
Peer Relationships
children believe that all children of same sex have the same interests so they avoid children of the opposite sex because they aren’t similiar
also learn consequences of associating with different social relationships (eg getting tease) so they avoid this
schema influences likelihood of developing social relationships with same and opposite sex
developmental changes in gender schema
8-10yo - schema of opposite sex develops
7yo - schema fixed rules
11-13 yo- “rules” are just societal conventions, more flexible
teenagers- abandon assumption that their own gender is preferable and significant minority label themselves as androgynous
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Support; gender appropriate behaviour appears before constancy
(Martin & Little) 4yo’s showed no signs of stability or constancy but showed strong gender stereotypical behaviours.
Gender identity enough to take interest in gender appropriate behaviours
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Undermining; labelling occurring earlier than 2-3yo
(Zosuls et al) observed recording of children play = gender labelling 19months
(Bandura & Bussey) gender typed preferences shown earlier than this
Challenges theory as contradicts idea that labelling happens at 2-3yo
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Support; schema = memory distortion
(Martin & Halverson) children <6yo most likely to recall gender-consistent behaviour than inconsistent when asked a week later
tend to change the sex of person doing inconsistent behaviour to match their schema
resilience of beliefs
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Support; children sexist views
Ignores conflicting info to ingroup schema in favour of consistent info
Children with mothers that have a less gender stereotypical job have less strong views of what men should act like- schema not entirely fixed
Counter-stereotypes tend to be ignored (problem when trying to reduce gender stereotypes)
counter stereotype not best way to reduce schema rather they should use direct experience with people that don’t fit schema
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Support; more attention when schema consistent
Gender neutral items given gender, p’s took greater interest in ingroup item and remember more details about ingroup items a week later
children actively seek info about their ingroup by paying more attention
Gender Schema Theory AO3
Weakness; Exaggeration of importance of schemas
not enough attention put of parental influence and punishment and reward (social learning)
doesn’t really explain why schemas develop in the way the do
Psychodynamic explanation of gender (Freud)
Gender identify starts in the phallic stage (3-6yo) = awareness of genitals/ physical differences between genders
Shaped through unconscious conflicts
Oedipus complex
Boy’s sexual desires toward his mother => feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father
Fear of dad, punishment = castration anxiety
Electra complex
Girl likes mum but realises mum doesn’t have penis
Penis envy = girls want to be like dad, sexual attraction
Girl believes mum took her penis = anger
penis envy replaced by want for baby = reduces anger
Male identification and internalisation
Boys resolve the Oedipus complex by identifying with the father and internalising his personality, thereby creating a sense of male identity. If a boy does not resolve the complex, he could become homosexual
Female identification and internalisation
Girls resolve the Electra complex by identifying with the mother and internalising her personality, thereby creating a sense of female identity. If a girl does not resolve the complex, she will be confused about her sexual identity
Girls have already lost penis so have less to lose than boys = less fear = less identification
Psychodynamic explanation AO3
“Support”; Little Hans, 5yo Vienna, case study
Hans loved mum and wanted dad dead
developed castration anxiety of dad because when he asked his mum to touch his penis she says she’ll cut it off
associated “touching” with horses because he overheard a father telling daughter not to touch the horse or it will bite her
repressed castration anxiety = fear of horses
Hans identified with dad, didn’t want him dead and lost castration anxiety
Criticism of Little Hans AO3
Subjectively interpreted
Freud published stages of psychodynamic approach prior to analyse, looking for evidence to fit
Criticism of Little Hans AO3
Source of info = Dad
dad supplied all the evidence and Freud only met little Hans once
dad was an avid supporter of Freud = biased
Criticism of Little Hans AO3
Alternate explanation of horse fear
Hans saw horse collapse on street when he was young
classical conditioning could have caused fear
disproving Freud
Criticism of Little Hans AO3
Can’t be generalised
Even if Hans did have an Oedipus complex this was a case study with individual differences and therefore cannot be generalised to the wider population
Criticism of Little Hans
bottom of burger AO3 explanation
lacking validity, reducing support that case study offers
whilst this support Oedipus complex in a pseudoscientific way it doesn’t actually support the development of gender identity
Cannot strongly support validity of psychodynamic approach
Psychodynamic Approach AO3
Weakness; Karen Horney
Freud- women are a mystery to me
penis envy = patriarchal Victorian era views
(Karen Horney) “womb envy” + criticised notion that female development based on desire to be like men, androcentric
Womb envy also alpha bias but feminist psychologists say this is necessary redress balance
Psychodynamic Approach AO3
Undermining; different gendered parents needed
needs different gender parents for both complexes so work
non-nuclear family = adverse affects on child gender development but evidence shows opposite
(Patterson, 2004) children with lesbian parents went through gender development the same as any other child and have normal social relationships with peers and adults
lacks predictive validity
Psychodynamic Approach AO3
Undermining; harsh/lenient fathers
strict fathers should cause greater castration anxiety = strong identification = greater boy gender identity
(Blakemore & Hill, 2008) more liberal fathers = boys more secure in their masculinity
lacks predictive validity
Social Learning Theory in Gender
gender is learnt by observing models that reinforce behaviour and imitating them
Indirect reinforcement
observing gender appropriate behaviour from a same sex role model (identification)
vicarious reinforcement = more likely to repeat the behaviour
Mediational processes
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
Motivation
Attention
Retention
Reproduction
Maintenance of gender appropriate behaviour
direct, differential reinforcement
learns gender identity
internalised
Direct Tuition
explicit introductions about gender appropriate behaviour
begins when child develops linguist skills
Self-direction/reciprocal determinism
once child have internalised gender-appropriate behaviours = no longer dependent on reinforcement and environmental factors
direct their own behaviour
Gender Social Learning Theory AO3
Supporting; (Smith and Lloyd) hammer shaped rattle
4-6month olds = 1/2 time in boy clothes & 1/2 time in girl clothes
adults interact:
boy clothes = hammer shaped rattle, reinforced for adventurous & assertive
girl clothes = doll, reinforced for pretty & passive
early age gender appropriate behaviour from adults
differential reinforcement
Gender Social Learning Theory AO3
Strength; temporal validity
can explain masc/fem behaviour changes over time
less distinct masc/fem roles now = new acceptable gender behaviour reinforced
no biological corresponding shift so SLT explains better
Gender Social Learning Theory AO3
Supporting; (Perry and Bussey) apples and pears
modelling in relation to gender
film shown to 8-9yo = boys and girls picking apples or pears
later children picked fruit seen selected by same sex in film
model gender appropriate behaviour
only imitated if it doesn’t go against existing stereotypes (man is skirt not imitated)
Gender Social Learning Theory AO3
Weakness; David Reimer biological role
Doesn’t include biological aspects
David Reimer raised as female but resisted and reverted to male identity later
Biosocial theory better?- innate biological differences that are later reinforced through society
Gender Social Learning Theory AO3
Direct tuition “boys’ toys”
(Martin et al.) boy still played with toys labelling “boy toys” even though girl played with them
boy didn’t play with labelling “girl toys” even though other boys playing with them
direct tuition more important than modelling
(Hildebrandt et al.) if direct tuition contradicted by instructors behaviour then effects are weakened
direct tuition best coupled with congruent behaviour
Cultural influences on gender
Culture- rules, morals, childrearing practices that bind a group of people
gender expectation vary from culture to culture
Cultural influences AO1
(Berry et al., 2002)
Women generally more conformist than men in most cultures
Conformity generally highest in tight, sedentary communities with correlation of +0.78 between sex differences and ecocultural index
Cultural influences AO1
(Alleye, 2011)
Uk = women in more domestic roles, less powerful positions
The gap is decreasing
Changing cultural differences
Cultural influences AO3
Supporting; (Margaret Mead, 1935)
Social groups in Papa New Guinea; cross cultural
Arapresh; men & women gentle, responsive, cooperative
Mundugumor; men & women aggressive, seek power
Tchambuli; women = dominant, impersonal
men = emotionally dependent, decorative
gender roles learnt culturally but Mead did say there were more similarities than difference- doesn’t retract from the differences
Cultural influences AO3
Weakness; Mead criticised
Observer bias/ imposed etic
(Freeman, 1984) tribes were just telling Mead what she wanted to hear, false picture
(Appell, 1984), Freeman also inaccurate
Mead = lacks internal validity
takes away from support
Cultural influences AO3
Undermining; universal agreement
(William & Best, 1990) agreement across cultures;
masc = dominant, independent
fem = caring, social
gender universal = biological
Cultural influences AO3
Weakness; nature/nurture debate
impossible to separate nature/nurture
from birth socialisation begins & gender expectations
Can’t tell where nature stops and nurture begins including within culture
probable that there is a complex link between both
Cultural influences AO3
Interactionist POV
combination of biological and then later social influences
would explain basic cross cultural similarities and variations interculturally
Media influence of gender
observe and learn gender role behaviours from same sex role models (higher status) from media = reinforced
vicarious reinforcement seen
self-efficacy = seeing other succeed = higher probability that child will succeed = imitation
Gender stereotypes in media
(Bussey & Bandura, 1999) men = directive, independent
women = dependent, unambitious, emotional
(Hodges et al, 1981) men = exercising control
women = at mercy of others
(Conley & Ramsey, 2011) women more passive than men in ads
Gender stereotypes in media AO3
Supporting; (William et al.) Notel
British Columbia
Notel- town with no TV signal
Unitel- town with one channel
Multitel- town with multiple channels
questionnaires to find typical gender behaviours = less evidence of gender stereotypical behaviour in no and unitel
after 2 years = sex-typed views and stereotypical views increased in notel
media plays a role in stereotypes
Gender stereotypes in media AO3
Supporting; gender representation differences
(Furnham & Farrangher, 2000)
men = autonomous
women = domestic
(McGhee & Freuh, 1980) longitudinal study over 15 months
6-12yo’s
25< hrs TV a week = more gender stereotypes (esp. males)
10> hs TV a week = less stereotype perceptions
Furnham - reinforcement of stereotypes
Freuh - +ve correlation, media influence and stereotypical behaviour
Gender stereotypes in media AO3
Weakness; cause and effect
Difficult to establish C&E
media may reflect social norms
or cause social norms
most children exposed to media so finding comparisons is hard
less internal validity
Gender stereotypes in media AO3
Real World application; counter stereotyping
(Pingree, 1978) reduced stereotyping when exposed to ads where women in less stereotypical roles
pressure of media = “Brave” = strong female
teenage boys = stronger stereotypes after counter-stereotype exposure.
may not be effective
gender schema theory = distortion of memory to fit schema = no effect
