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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

Sex-role stereotypes Definition AO1

A

a set of shared beliefs and expectations within a social group that determine how a man and woman should behave and think

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2
Q

How are sex role stereotypes reinforced? AO1

A

Parents, society, media, other children… both implicitly (not directly expressed) and explicitly (modelling)

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3
Q

Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Furnham and Farragher (2000)

A

TV ads, men=autonomous, women= familial role/domestic

reinforce sex role stereotypes

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4
Q

Sex Role Stereotypes AO3
Seavey et al.

A

(1975)
3month old, yellow jumpsuit, 1/3 p’s told baby was female, 1/3 p’s told male and last 1/3 wasn’t told about gender. Rag doll= female, plastic ring= male. Non- specified gender= female p’s interacted more than male p’s and gender was assumed based of physical traits (strong grip= boy, soft= girl).

Adults= differential reinforcement

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5
Q

Sex Role Stereotypes AO3

Rubin et al. (1977)

A

Parent describe baby within 24hours of birth. Boy= alert/strong, girl= soft/delicate.

Parents stereotype children very early despite no no stereotypical behaviour shown.

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6
Q

Sex Role Stereotypes AO3

Ingalhaliar et al. (2014)

A

949 young p’s brain scanned. Female = more connection from right to left side - better multitasking. Male = intense activity in specific parts (cerebellum, motor skills) - better single complex tasks.

Some truth in stereotypes.

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7
Q

Androgyny AO1

A

Combination of both feminine and masculine traits

Andro= male, gyny= female

Bem introduced concept 1970s, argued traditional views wrong- psychologically more healthy to avoid stereotypes.

M+W should feel free to adopt range of behaviours that suit personality.

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8
Q

BSRI

A

Bem Sex Role Inventory 1974

Psychological test to measure androgony.

100 American UGs to decide male and female traits

200 traits narrowed down to 40

20= female, 20= male, 20= neutral items

7 point Likert scale

Scored added together and masc and fem scores found

Possible to now test for masculinity+ femininity independently.

HF LM= femenine

HM LF= masculine

HM HF= andrognous

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9
Q

BSRI criticism (Spence et al)

A

Doesn’t distinguish between types of androgyny

Added Low levels of fem and masc = undifferentiated

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10
Q

Gender schema theory of androgyny

A

1983

Cognitive difference

Androgynous people respond to situations independent of gender concept whereas a typical sex-type person would use their gender schema

Androgyny better for mental health;

sex roles= constraining

androgoyny= freer cognitive style

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11
Q

BSRI AO3

Lacks Internal Validity

A

Tests self esteem rather than androgyny

both adjectives = socially desirable, higher scores = higher self esteem

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12
Q

BSRI AO3

Lacks Validity, Artefact of the measurement

A

Response bias

Liberman & Gaa (1986) 133 grad student, androgynous p’s = higher scores in general compared to those in sex types. Some p’s just have a tendency to pick higher numbers.

Scored maybe an artefact of the measurement rather than representing a true difference.

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13
Q

BSRI AO3

Lacks Temporal Validity

A

adjectives selected in 1970s

Hoffman and Borders, 400 UGs to rate adjective as masc or fem, only 2 adj (‘masc’ and ‘fem’) were agreed

others couldn’t reach 75% agreement level

people’s attitude change = no longer relevant

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14
Q

Typical Chromosome Patterns

A

46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs;

Females XX

Males XY

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15
Q

SRY gene

A

sex-determining region on the Y chromosome, causes primitive gonads to develop into testes at around 3 months after conception

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16
Q

genetic transmission

A

explains how individuals acquire their sex

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17
Q

Testosterone

A

Males= 90% more than females

Causes changes prenatally

Released when testes develop at 3 months in womb

Acts on hypothalamus = makes male brain

Masculinisation of brain = development of spatial task areas of brain

Aggression and competitiveness

Larger sexual dimorphic nucleus in males

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18
Q

Oestrogen

A

female = default gender so no hormone needed in prenatal development

(Shi et al, 2015) = smaller brain size

Secondary sex characteristics, breasts, period

PMT = irritable, emotional

Menstrual cycle = increase blood supply to uterus

Depletion = menopause

Feminisation of brain = more neural connections + female type behaviours (cooperation/sensitivity)

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19
Q

Oxytocin

A

Love hormone secreted from posterior of pituitary gland = promotes bonding

Oestrogen synergises

Testosterone dampens

Facilitates childbirth, contractions + breast feeding

Increases during sex x5, male = drops after orgasm

Female social behaviour = mate selection, nesting, pair bonding, nurturing and protecting offspring

Dampens fight or flight => tend and befriend

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20
Q

Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

Biological Determinism

A

Biology main factor gender? John Money claimed otherwise - should be wrong

Money said David Reimer (botched circumcision) should be raised as a girl but he showed strong resilience and male identity.

(Reiner and Gearhart, 2004)- 16 males born without penis; 2 raised as male, stayed male; 14 raised as female, 8 reassigned themselves to male by 16yo

biology key in gender development

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21
Q

Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

Importance of other factors

A

sex doesn’t match external genitalia when abnormal hormones

gender outcome is ‘unpredictable’ - mixture of genes, hormones, sex of rearing and socialisation

Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH), XX females have prenatally high levels of androgens - gender assigned at birth accepted by some and rejected by others, unpredictable

nature and nurture is part of it

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22
Q

Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

Role of culture and social influence

A

Batista family, Dominican republic, 4 children with female genitalia raised as girls

puberty- large amounts of testosterone caused male genitalia to appear (they were XY but had testosterone insensitivity gene)

new male role accepted easily- community accepted gender fluidity, culture important

more difficult in Western cultures

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23
Q

Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

Real-world application

A

understanding intersex conditions = RW app.

in past = surgery for inter sex conditions to be “fixed” with surgery

Now = gender assigned at birth and individual can make informed decision later

Psychological research = improve people’s lives

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24
Q

Role of chromosomes and hormones AO3

Effect of hormones on brain development

A

Testosterone on brain development

female monkeys exposed to testosterone during prenatal development = later more rough and tumble play + more aggressive

can’t be generalised to humans, human behaviour governed by expectations and choice

women bargaining; those believed to be given does of testosterone = more unfair compared to those told they were given a neutral placebo- shows effect of expectation

hormones effect brain development and behaviour but its not that simple

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25
Q

Kleinfelter’s Syndrome

A

Males with XXY sex chromosomes, 1/1000 males

Physical; smaller testes, no facial/pubic hair, some breast development, taller with gangly limbs, wider hips, often infertile

Psychological; poor language + reading ability, dyslexia, more passive, shy, lack interest in sex, can’t deal with stress well

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26
Q

Turner’s Syndrome

A

Females with XO sex chromosomes, 1/2000

Physical; no menstrual cycle, infertile, no breasts, broad chests, webbed neck and low set ears, narrow hip, immature physically

Psychological; higher reading, verbal, language skills. Lower spatial and maths skills. Socially immature, struggle to fit in

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27
Q

Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3

Strength; contribute to understanding of nature-nurture

A

Compare to chromosome-typical people and find differences between both groups. E.g turners=higher reading

identify what changes chromosomes cause, biology

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28
Q

Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3

Weakness; Issues with concluding that nature have effects on psychology and behaviour

A

Chromosomal differences in those with disorders and differences in behaviour is not causal. Environment and society my influence these. eg turners = immaturity may be ‘cause they treated immaturely

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29
Q

Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3

Real World Application

A

Research helps to identify syndromes earlier so treatment can be administered in childhood- more effective than being administered in adulthood.

Testosterone replacement therapy for Klinefelter’s = development of masc traits

Growth hormone of turners = taller in adulthood

Oestrogen replacement therapy = breast development, menstrual cycle + healthy womb

Improve people’s lives

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30
Q

Atypical sex chromosome patterns AO3

Weakness; Can’t generalise

A

Sample is unusual and unrepresentative

individual look different so normally treated differently. 2/3rds unaware they have atypical chromosomes so studies based only on those that are diagnosed.

they be different in an important physical/psychological way.

Nature and nurture difficult to assess when comparing typical and atypical

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31
Q

Kohlberg’s Gender Theory

A

Cognitive developmental approach

Draws of Piagetian ideas- thinking develops as we age because of physical changes in our brain allowing more complex, abstract thought

Stage theory- has 3 stages

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32
Q

Stages of Kohlberg’s Theory

A

Gender Labelling/Identity (2-3)

Gender Stability (4-6)

Gender Constancy (7<)

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33
Q

Cognitive Maturation

A

Naturally progressing through stages as thinking matures

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34
Q

Gender identity/labelling

A

Correctly label themselves as boy/girl

Can label other people other people as boy/girl and relate to one

No idea of gender stability/constancy- so over time or when appearance changes gender can change too

thinking is “pre-operational”-Piaget- lacks internal logic

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35
Q

Gender Stability

A

Aware that their own gender is permanent despite time or appearance

But doesn’t apply same logic to others

Engaging in non-stereotypical activities will cause child to change someone’s gender (male nurse = female)

Piaget “Conservation” doesn’t develop until 7yo & “Egocentrism” continues until 7yo

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36
Q

Conservation in gender

A

Piaget

ability to understand that something remains the same despite changes in outward appearance

gender; changes is superficial appearance will lead child to believe that the gender has changed

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37
Q

Egocentrism

A

Piaget

inability for a child to see something from someone else’s perspective; they assume that others are experiencing the same as them

gender; can’t differentiate between others and self so if a physical property changed child assumes gender has changed because that’s how they experience it

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38
Q

Gender Constancy

A

Gender is permanent and fixed over time and appearance for both themselves and others

At this point children learn gender-appropriate behaviours (before this stage there was no point) & seeking same sex role models

39
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory AO3

Supporting evidence for the three stages

A

Labelling- (Thompson) 2yo’s 76%, 3yo’s 90% at identifying their sex- accuracy grows when aging

Stability- (Slaby & Frey) Asked questions about gender stability to children “Will you be a mummy or daddy when you grow up?” = didn’t show stability until 3/4yo.

Constancy- (Slaby & Frey) established levels of children constancy by asking questions like; to a boy, “If you wore a dress would you still be a boy?” then played a video with women on the right and men on the left. High levels of constancy = greater interest if same sex role model

40
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory AO3

Weakness; methodological problems

A

(Bem) criticised (McConaghy)’s transplant clothes on doll experiment which showed that children of 3-5yo judged gender based on clothes not genitals which supported Kohlberg. (Bem) children are identifying gender from what they have been taught, in society they are taught to look for physical cues

(Martin and Halverson) criticised (Slaybe & Frey) saying that children adopt a pretend mode when answering question they have to explicitly to give answers based of what they believe

Validity of support questioned

41
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory AO3

Undermining; gender differences

A

(Slaybe & Frey) boys reach constancy before girls

(Langlois & Downs) boys more likely punished for gender inappropriate behaviour so learn quicker

(Huston) harder to make boys participate in fem activities than vise versa; social learning theory, boys have more powerful role models = greater identification

42
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory AO3

Constancy at younger age

A

(Slaybe & Frey) gender constancy can appear as young as 5

Still shows that gender changes over time

Maybe because of increased media exposure, ages in theory need to be adjusted

43
Q

Kohlberg’s Theory AO3

Undermining; gender appropriate behaviour appears before constancy

A

(Martin & Little) 4yo’s showed no signs of stability or constancy but showed strong gender stereotypical behaviours.

This aligns more with gender schema theory.

44
Q

gender schema

A

set of organised expectations of gender to help us interpret info in the brain

formed through previous experience

45
Q

Gender Schema Theory

A

cognitive

first introduced by Bem but then developed by Martin and Halverson (1981)

getting info about gender and gender appropriate behaviours happens before constancy- labelling is enough

schema affects later behaviour esp. memory and attention

46
Q

Ingroup and Outgroup

A

Group person identifies with. Same sex ingroup.

+vely evaluates own group and -vely evaluates outgroups

enhances self esteem

works to acquire knowledge about ingroup + avoid behaviours of outgroup

47
Q

Resilience of gender beliefs

A

ignore info that isn’t consistent with ingroup beliefs

schema remains fixed and influences retention and memory

48
Q

Peer Relationships

A

children believe that all children of same sex have the same interests so they avoid children of the opposite sex because they aren’t similiar

also learn consequences of associating with different social relationships (eg getting tease) so they avoid this

schema influences likelihood of developing social relationships with same and opposite sex

49
Q

developmental changes in gender schema

A

8-10yo - schema of opposite sex develops

7yo - schema fixed rules

11-13 yo- “rules” are just societal conventions, more flexible

teenagers- abandon assumption that their own gender is preferable and significant minority label themselves as androgynous

50
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Support; gender appropriate behaviour appears before constancy

A

(Martin & Little) 4yo’s showed no signs of stability or constancy but showed strong gender stereotypical behaviours.

Gender identity enough to take interest in gender appropriate behaviours

51
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Undermining; labelling occurring earlier than 2-3yo

A

(Zosuls et al) observed recording of children play = gender labelling 19months

(Bandura & Bussey) gender typed preferences shown earlier than this

Challenges theory as contradicts idea that labelling happens at 2-3yo

52
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Support; schema = memory distortion

A

(Martin & Halverson) children <6yo most likely to recall gender-consistent behaviour than inconsistent when asked a week later

tend to change the sex of person doing inconsistent behaviour to match their schema

resilience of beliefs

53
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Support; children sexist views

A

Ignores conflicting info to ingroup schema in favour of consistent info

Children with mothers that have a less gender stereotypical job have less strong views of what men should act like- schema not entirely fixed

Counter-stereotypes tend to be ignored (problem when trying to reduce gender stereotypes)

counter stereotype not best way to reduce schema rather they should use direct experience with people that don’t fit schema

54
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Support; more attention when schema consistent

A

Gender neutral items given gender, p’s took greater interest in ingroup item and remember more details about ingroup items a week later

children actively seek info about their ingroup by paying more attention

55
Q

Gender Schema Theory AO3

Weakness; Exaggeration of importance of schemas

A

not enough attention put of parental influence and punishment and reward (social learning)

doesn’t really explain why schemas develop in the way the do

56
Q

Psychodynamic explanation of gender (Freud)

A

Gender identify starts in the phallic stage (3-6yo) = awareness of genitals/ physical differences between genders

Shaped through unconscious conflicts

57
Q

Oedipus complex

A

Boy’s sexual desires toward his mother => feelings of jealousy and hatred for the rival father

Fear of dad, punishment = castration anxiety

58
Q

Electra complex

A

Girl likes mum but realises mum doesn’t have penis

Penis envy = girls want to be like dad, sexual attraction

Girl believes mum took her penis = anger

penis envy replaced by want for baby = reduces anger

59
Q

Male identification and internalisation

A

Boys resolve the Oedipus complex by identifying with the father and internalising his personality, thereby creating a sense of male identity. If a boy does not resolve the complex, he could become homosexual

60
Q

Female identification and internalisation

A

Girls resolve the Electra complex by identifying with the mother and internalising her personality, thereby creating a sense of female identity. If a girl does not resolve the complex, she will be confused about her sexual identity

Girls have already lost penis so have less to lose than boys = less fear = less identification

61
Q

Psychodynamic explanation AO3

“Support”; Little Hans, 5yo Vienna, case study

A

Hans loved mum and wanted dad dead

developed castration anxiety of dad because when he asked his mum to touch his penis she says she’ll cut it off

associated “touching” with horses because he overheard a father telling daughter not to touch the horse or it will bite her

repressed castration anxiety = fear of horses

Hans identified with dad, didn’t want him dead and lost castration anxiety

62
Q

Criticism of Little Hans AO3

Subjectively interpreted

A

Freud published stages of psychodynamic approach prior to analyse, looking for evidence to fit

63
Q

Criticism of Little Hans AO3

Source of info = Dad

A

dad supplied all the evidence and Freud only met little Hans once

dad was an avid supporter of Freud = biased

64
Q

Criticism of Little Hans AO3

Alternate explanation of horse fear

A

Hans saw horse collapse on street when he was young

classical conditioning could have caused fear

disproving Freud

65
Q

Criticism of Little Hans AO3

Can’t be generalised

A

Even if Hans did have an Oedipus complex this was a case study with individual differences and therefore cannot be generalised to the wider population

66
Q

Criticism of Little Hans

bottom of burger AO3 explanation

A

lacking validity, reducing support that case study offers

whilst this support Oedipus complex in a pseudoscientific way it doesn’t actually support the development of gender identity

Cannot strongly support validity of psychodynamic approach

67
Q

Psychodynamic Approach AO3

Weakness; Karen Horney

A

Freud- women are a mystery to me

penis envy = patriarchal Victorian era views

(Karen Horney) “womb envy” + criticised notion that female development based on desire to be like men, androcentric

Womb envy also alpha bias but feminist psychologists say this is necessary redress balance

68
Q

Psychodynamic Approach AO3

Undermining; different gendered parents needed

A

needs different gender parents for both complexes so work

non-nuclear family = adverse affects on child gender development but evidence shows opposite

(Patterson, 2004) children with lesbian parents went through gender development the same as any other child and have normal social relationships with peers and adults

lacks predictive validity

69
Q

Psychodynamic Approach AO3

Undermining; harsh/lenient fathers

A

strict fathers should cause greater castration anxiety = strong identification = greater boy gender identity

(Blakemore & Hill, 2008) more liberal fathers = boys more secure in their masculinity

lacks predictive validity

70
Q

Social Learning Theory in Gender

A

gender is learnt by observing models that reinforce behaviour and imitating them

71
Q

Indirect reinforcement

A

observing gender appropriate behaviour from a same sex role model (identification)

vicarious reinforcement = more likely to repeat the behaviour

72
Q

Mediational processes

A

Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response

Motivation

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

73
Q

Maintenance of gender appropriate behaviour

A

direct, differential reinforcement

learns gender identity

internalised

74
Q

Direct Tuition

A

explicit introductions about gender appropriate behaviour

begins when child develops linguist skills

75
Q

Self-direction/reciprocal determinism

A

once child have internalised gender-appropriate behaviours = no longer dependent on reinforcement and environmental factors

direct their own behaviour

76
Q

Gender Social Learning Theory AO3

Supporting; (Smith and Lloyd) hammer shaped rattle

A

4-6month olds = 1/2 time in boy clothes & 1/2 time in girl clothes

adults interact:

boy clothes = hammer shaped rattle, reinforced for adventurous & assertive

girl clothes = doll, reinforced for pretty & passive

early age gender appropriate behaviour from adults

differential reinforcement

77
Q

Gender Social Learning Theory AO3

Strength; temporal validity

A

can explain masc/fem behaviour changes over time

less distinct masc/fem roles now = new acceptable gender behaviour reinforced

no biological corresponding shift so SLT explains better

78
Q

Gender Social Learning Theory AO3

Supporting; (Perry and Bussey) apples and pears

A

modelling in relation to gender

film shown to 8-9yo = boys and girls picking apples or pears

later children picked fruit seen selected by same sex in film

model gender appropriate behaviour

only imitated if it doesn’t go against existing stereotypes (man is skirt not imitated)

79
Q

Gender Social Learning Theory AO3

Weakness; David Reimer biological role

A

Doesn’t include biological aspects

David Reimer raised as female but resisted and reverted to male identity later

Biosocial theory better?- innate biological differences that are later reinforced through society

80
Q

Gender Social Learning Theory AO3

Direct tuition “boys’ toys”

A

(Martin et al.) boy still played with toys labelling “boy toys” even though girl played with them

boy didn’t play with labelling “girl toys” even though other boys playing with them

direct tuition more important than modelling

(Hildebrandt et al.) if direct tuition contradicted by instructors behaviour then effects are weakened

direct tuition best coupled with congruent behaviour

81
Q

Cultural influences on gender

A

Culture- rules, morals, childrearing practices that bind a group of people

gender expectation vary from culture to culture

82
Q

Cultural influences AO1

(Berry et al., 2002)

A

Women generally more conformist than men in most cultures

Conformity generally highest in tight, sedentary communities with correlation of +0.78 between sex differences and ecocultural index

83
Q

Cultural influences AO1

(Alleye, 2011)

A

Uk = women in more domestic roles, less powerful positions

The gap is decreasing

Changing cultural differences

84
Q

Cultural influences AO3

Supporting; (Margaret Mead, 1935)

A

Social groups in Papa New Guinea; cross cultural

Arapresh; men & women gentle, responsive, cooperative

Mundugumor; men & women aggressive, seek power

Tchambuli; women = dominant, impersonal

men = emotionally dependent, decorative

gender roles learnt culturally but Mead did say there were more similarities than difference- doesn’t retract from the differences

85
Q

Cultural influences AO3

Weakness; Mead criticised

A

Observer bias/ imposed etic

(Freeman, 1984) tribes were just telling Mead what she wanted to hear, false picture

(Appell, 1984), Freeman also inaccurate

Mead = lacks internal validity

takes away from support

86
Q

Cultural influences AO3

Undermining; universal agreement

A

(William & Best, 1990) agreement across cultures;

masc = dominant, independent

fem = caring, social

gender universal = biological

87
Q

Cultural influences AO3

Weakness; nature/nurture debate

A

impossible to separate nature/nurture

from birth socialisation begins & gender expectations

Can’t tell where nature stops and nurture begins including within culture

probable that there is a complex link between both

88
Q

Cultural influences AO3

Interactionist POV

A

combination of biological and then later social influences

would explain basic cross cultural similarities and variations interculturally

89
Q

Media influence of gender

A

observe and learn gender role behaviours from same sex role models (higher status) from media = reinforced

vicarious reinforcement seen

self-efficacy = seeing other succeed = higher probability that child will succeed = imitation

90
Q

Gender stereotypes in media

A

(Bussey & Bandura, 1999) men = directive, independent

women = dependent, unambitious, emotional

(Hodges et al, 1981) men = exercising control

women = at mercy of others

(Conley & Ramsey, 2011) women more passive than men in ads

91
Q

Gender stereotypes in media AO3

Supporting; (William et al.) Notel

A

British Columbia

Notel- town with no TV signal

Unitel- town with one channel

Multitel- town with multiple channels

questionnaires to find typical gender behaviours = less evidence of gender stereotypical behaviour in no and unitel

after 2 years = sex-typed views and stereotypical views increased in notel

media plays a role in stereotypes

92
Q

Gender stereotypes in media AO3

Supporting; gender representation differences

A

(Furnham & Farrangher, 2000)

men = autonomous

women = domestic

(McGhee & Freuh, 1980) longitudinal study over 15 months

6-12yo’s

25< hrs TV a week = more gender stereotypes (esp. males)

10> hs TV a week = less stereotype perceptions

Furnham - reinforcement of stereotypes

Freuh - +ve correlation, media influence and stereotypical behaviour

93
Q

Gender stereotypes in media AO3

Weakness; cause and effect

A

Difficult to establish C&E

media may reflect social norms

or cause social norms

most children exposed to media so finding comparisons is hard

less internal validity

94
Q

Gender stereotypes in media AO3

Real World application; counter stereotyping

A

(Pingree, 1978) reduced stereotyping when exposed to ads where women in less stereotypical roles

pressure of media = “Brave” = strong female

teenage boys = stronger stereotypes after counter-stereotype exposure.

may not be effective

gender schema theory = distortion of memory to fit schema = no effect

A-level Psych (12 decks)

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