Issues and debates Flashcards
What is free will?
The idea that we can play an active role and have total choice in how to behave, belief that humans are self-determined (not determined by other factors)
Claims that a person is responsible for their own actions and that it is impossible to predict human behaviour
What is determinism?
Idea that behaviour has a cause that can be found, measured and predicted
Idea that our behaviour is governed by internal or external forces over which we have no control which consequently means that our behaviour is viewed as predictable
‘the casual laws of determinism form the basis of science’
What are the 5 types of determinism?
Hard
Soft
Biological
Environmental
Psychic
What is hard determinism?
Suggests that all human behaviour has a cause and that it should be possible to identify and describe these causes
Compatible with aims of science
People’s behaviour always has a cause and people have no choice about how to act
What is soft determinism?
Acknowledges that all human action has a cause but suggests that there is some room for manoeuvre with the fact that people have conscious mental control over the way they behave
Science within determinism does not detract from the freedom that we have rational choices in everyday situations
We can modify, adapt and change if we wish to
What is biological determinism?
Idea that most human characteristics, physical and mental, are determined at conception by hereditary factors passed from parent to offspring e.g. genetics
What is environmental determinism?
Idea that the environment (physical or emotional) causes/influences certain behaviours in humans
What is psychic determinism?
Idea that behaviour is a result of childhood experiences
What does relative importance mean?
That two things may be as important as each other in explaining different behaviours in different cases
What is the nature-nurture debate?
The relative importance of hereditary and environment in determining behaviour- the interactionist approach
What is the nature side of this argument about?
Behaviour can be inherited through genes from parents
Behaviours are passed on through the species due to being evolutionary adaptive
What is nativism?
Theory that concepts, mental capacities and mental structures are innate rather than acquired by learning
What is the nurture side of this argument about?
Any environment the developing human experiences can shape behaviour, includes:
Pre-natal and post-natal environments
Social conditions child grows up in
Cultural and historical context
People they socialise with
Shared and non-shared environments
What is the shared environment?
Those aspects of an individual’s environment that are shared with other children in the family (general parenting style, socio-economic status, neighbourhood etc.)
What is the non-shared environment?
Experiences that can be different for different children within the same family (birth order, specific parenting strategies, teachers, peers, friends etc.)
What is empiricism?
Theory that all knowledge is based on experience derived from the senses
What is interactionism?
Belief that both nature and nurture are essential to any behaviour and that they interact in a complex manner
What is the heritability coefficient?
Numerical figure from 0 to 1.0 used to access heredity and indicate the extent to which a characteristic has a genetic basis –> 1 means it is entirely genetically determined)
What is diathesis stress?
Refers to a genetic predisposition and an environmental trigger being required to cause a behaviour
What are twin studies used for?
Research conducted on monozygotic and dizygotic twins (identical and non-identical)
Explore relative contribution of genetics vs environment due to number of shared genes
Mz twins share 100% of genes
Dz twins share 50% of genes
What are adoption studies used for?
Research conducted into Mz twins who have been adopted vs Mz who have stayed with biological parents
Comparisons made between concordance rate of Mz twins who have disorder and stayed with biological parents to those who have disorder and were adopted
What is holism?
Idea that any attempt to break up behaviour and experience is inappropriate as can only be understood by analysing whole person or behaviour as a whole
Focus on whole system or person, behaviour caused by cumulative effects of many factors
What is reductionism?
Belief that human behaviour can be explained by breaking it down into simpler, basic component parts
Reductionists believe best way to understand behaviour is breaking up into individual parts and using simplest explanations
What are some misconceptions about reductionism?
It is not ignoring all other approaches
What are three levels of explanation?
Highest, middle and lower
What is the lowest level of explanation?
Biological/chemical explanations
How neurotransmitters, genetics etc affect our behaviour
Reductionist
What is middle level of explanation?
Psychological explanations of behaviour
Holism
What is highest level of explanation?
Multivariable cultural and social explanations of how social groups affect our behaviour
Holism
What is biological reductionism?
Reducing behaviours down to the action of neutrons, neurotransmitters, genes, hormones etc
What is environmental reductionism?
Suggest that all behaviour can be explained in terms of simple stimulus-response links, simple relationship between associations or consequences
What is an idiographic approach?
Attempts to describe the nature of unique individual
People studied as unique entities with own subjective experiences and values
No attempt to compare or generalise to larger group
Produces qualitative data
Central aim is to describe richness of human experience and gain insight into person’s unique way of viewing world
What is nomothetic approach?
Main aim to produce general laws of human behaviour to provide ‘benchmark’ against which people can be compared so behaviour can be predicted/controlled
Study large numbers of people in order to establish ways in which people are similar
Features approaches that are reductionist, determinist and use scientific methods
Focus on ability to generalise
What is bias?
Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own assumptions
What is universality?
When a theory can be applied to all people, irrespective of gender and culture
What are areas in psychology where bias can occur?
Gender and culture
What is gender bias?
The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences
Bias often against women
What is gender bias?
The differential treatment and/or representation of males and females, based on stereotypes and not on real differences
Bias is often against women
What does this gender bias lead to?
Differential treatment of males and females, bases on stereotypes and not real differences
What is alpha bias?
Refers to theories that exaggerate, emphasise or overestimate the differences between males and females
Some psychologists have identified gender differences in order to argue that some are superior to others –> these differences often presented as fixed and inevitable
More likely to evaluate females negatively in relation to male counterparts
What is beta bias?
Refers to theories which tend to ignore, minimise or underestimate the differences between cultures or genders
Any research conducted with one gender group and then presented as a theory of all human behaviour is beta biased
Theories often assume that findings from males can apply equally to females (when in fact they may not)
What is androcentrism?
Theories which are centered on or focussed on males
Suggests males are the power in society
Women specific behaviour seen as abnormal or inferior
What is gynocentrism?
Focus on role and importance of women
Samples female only
Rarely happens due to Psychology being male dominated
What is culture?
Groups of people that may differ in life experiences and behaviours
What are ways in which people in a culture may differ?
Norms
Behaviours
Practices
Language
Values
Beliefs
Ethnic background
Location
Etc…
What do critics argue about culture in psychology?
That mainstream psychology has generally ignored culture as an important influence on human behaviour
Cultural differences in behaviour will inevitably be seen as ‘abnormal’ or ‘inferior’
What is culture bias?
Tendency to judge people in terms of one’s own cultural assumptions
What can ethnocentrism lead to?
Overestimating the importance and worth of people who are in your group
Underestimating the importance and worth of people who are not in your group
What is ethnocentrism?
Seeing the world only from one’s own cultural perspective and believing that this one perspective is both normal and correct
How do psychologists participate in ethnocentrism?
Ignoring the views, values or culture lot another society when conducting research/interpreting findings
Psychologists will judge other people in relation to their own particular ethnic group or culture
How does ethnocentrism usually occur?
By generalising the findings of studies from one culture to all cultures without thinking of possible differences
What is cultural relativism?
Insists that behaviour can be properly understood only if the cultural context is taken into consideration
What are culturally relative behaviours?
Behaviours which are dependent on culture
What are individualistic cultures?
Placing emphasis on the self and ones own motivations and goals
Reliance on others viewed as a weakness and undesirable
Personal needs always considered first
What are collectivist cultures?
Valuing the groups needs over the individuals
Interdependence is favoured over autonomy
Desires of individual are less important than the ties between collective units (family or community)
What is imposed etic?
When psychologists use methods developed for western participants in other parts of the world without modifying them –> may cause findings to lack validity
What is emic approach?
Using methods such as naturalistic observations and open interviews in order to minimise culture bias
However we cannot generalise so unlikely we will be able to construct universal explanations of behaviour
What are ethical implications?
The impact in which psychological research could have on the rights of individuals
What are some things that research could affect?
Public policy
Changes in treatment options
Way in which certain groups are viewed or treated
What do researchers have to consider with research?
Short term cost vs long term gain
Important that researchers are reflective and remember their researcher responsibility
What is socially sensitive research?
Refers to studies that tackle socially sensitive ‘taboo’ topics where there are potential social consequences or implications
What are some examples of socially sensitive topics?
Race
Sexuality
Topics which are private, stressful or sacred
What can potential social implications be?
Exposure of incriminating or stigmatising information
Scientific credibility to prejudice or discrimination
Who are people affected by socially sensitive research?
Participants in research
Researcher (s)
Groups that could be potentially impacted by results
