ISSA Section 1: Anatomy and Physiology Flashcards
training effect:
An increase in functional capacity of muscles and other bodily tissues as a result of increased stress (overload) placed upon them.
homeostasis:
The automatic tendency to maintain a relatively constant internal environment.
metabolism:
The total of all the chemical and physical processes by which the body builds and maintains itself (anabolism) and by which it breaks down its substances for the production of energy (Catabolism).
Glucose:
Principal circulating sugar in the blood and the major energy source of the body.
Ketone bodies:
Bodies produced as intermediate products of fat metabolism
Lactic acid:
A by-product of glucose and glycogen metabolism in anaerobic muscle energetics.
Amino acid:
The building blocks of protein There are 24 amino acids which form countless number of different proteins.
Fatty acids:
Any of a large group of monobasic acids especially those found in animal and vegetable fats and oils.
Anabolism:
The building up in the body of complex chemical compounds from simpler Compounds (e.g. proteins from amino acids).
catabolism:
The breaking down in the body of complex chemical compounds into Simpler ones (e.g. proteins to amino acids).
metabolic set point:
The base rate of metabolism that the body seeks to maintain; resulting in basal metabolic rate.
basal metabolic rate (BMR):
The minimum energy required to maintain the body’s life function at rest; usually expressed in calories per hour per square meter of the body surface.
thermic effect:
The heat liberated from a particular food; it is a measure of its energy content and its tendency to be burned as heat. This process of heat liberation is also commonly referred to as “thermogenesis.”
calorie:
A unit of heat; specifically, it is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius at ‘l atmosphere. As a unit of metabolism (as in diet and energy expenditure), it is spelled with a capital C; I Calorie = 1,000 calories, or l kilocalorie (kcal)
kilocalorie (kcal):
A unit of measurement that equals 1,000 calories, or 1 Calorie. Used in metabolic studies, it is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kilogram of water 1 degree Celsius at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. The term is used in nutrition to express the fuel (energy) value of food.
resplratory quotlent (RQ):
A method of determining the “fuel mix” being used, giving us a way to measure the relative amounts of fats, carbohydrates, and proteins being burned for energy
oxidation:
The chemical act of combining with oxygen or of removing hydrogen.
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max):
The highest rate of oxygen consumption
BCAAs (Branched-Chain Amino Acids)
Branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) are a group of three essential amino acids: leucine, isoleucine and valine. BCAA supplements are commonly taken in order to boost muscle growth and enhance exercise performance. They may also help with weight loss and reduce fatigue after exercise
Endurance exercise stimulates the following changes:
-increased muscle glycogen storage capacity -increased muscle mitochondrial density -increased resting adenosine triphosphate(AITP) content in muscles -increased resting Creatine phosphate(CP) content in muscles -increased resting creatine content in muscles -increased aerobic enzymes -increase percentage of slow‐ twitch muscle fibers -Decreased percentage of fast‐ twitch muscle fibers -decreased muscle size when compared to strength training -increased cardiac output -decreased resting heart rate -Decreased body fat -increased Krebs cycle enzymes increased number of cap‖aries
adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
An organic compound found in muscle which, upon being broken down enzymatically, yields energy for muscle contraction.
creatine phosphate (CP):
A high-energy phosphate molecule that is stored in cells and can be used to immediately resynthesize ATP
Strength/power:
Energy coming from immediate ATP stores. Examples include shot put powerlift, high jump, golf swing, tennis serve, and a throw. Activities last about 0 to 3 seconds of maximal effort.
Sustained power:
Energy coming from immediate ATP and CP stores. Examples include sprints, fast breaks, football lineman. Activities last about 0 to 10 seconds of near-maximal effort.
Anaerobic power/endurance:
Energy coming from ATP, CP, and lactic acid. Examples include 200- to 400-meter dash and 100-yard swim. Activities lasting about 1 to 2 minutes.
Aerobic endurance:
Energy coming from the oxidative pathway. Activities last over 2 minutes.
ATP/CP pathway:
ATP and CP provide anaerobic sources of phosphate-bond energy. The energy liberated from hydrolysis (splitting) of CP re-bonds ADP and Pi to form ATP.
adenosine diphosphate (ADP):
an organic compound in metabolism that functions in the transfer of energy during the catabolism of glucose, formed by the removal of a phosphate molecule from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and composed of adenine, ribose, and two phosphate groups.
type ll muscle fibers (fast twitch):
Muscle fiber type that contracts quickly and is used mostly in intensive, short-duration exercises.
type I muscle fibers (slow twitch):
A muscle fiber characterized by its slow speed of contraction and a high capacity for aerobic Glycolysis.
glycolytic pathway:
A metabolic process in which glucose is broken down to produce energy anaerobically.
gluconeogenesis
Chemical process that converts lactate and pyruvate back into glucose. When glycogen (sugar stored in muscles) stores are low, glucose for emergency energy is synthesized from protein and the glycerol portion of fat molecules. This is one important reason that ATP/CP athletes and glycolytic athletes are warned to stay away from undue aerobic exercise: lt’s muscle-wasting.
anaerobic threshold:
The point where increasing energy demands of exercise cannot be met by the use of oxygen, and an oxygen debt begins to be incurred.
oxidative pathway:
A metabolic process in which oxygen combines with lactic acid, resynthesizing glycogen to produce energy aerobically.
Krebs cycle:
Citric acid cycle; a set of I reactions, arranged in a cycle, in which free energy is recovered in the form of ATP.
electron transport chain:
The passing of electrons over a membrane, aiding in a reaction to recover free energy for the synthesis of ATP.
Pyruvate:
A byproduct of glycolysis.
beta oxidation:
A series of reactions in which fatty acids are broken down.
resting metabolic rate (RMR):
The amount of energy (calories) required to efficiently perform vital bodily functions such as respiration, organ function and heart rate while the body is awake, but at rest.
fatty acid:
Any of a large group of monobasic acids, especially those found in animal and vegetable fats and oils.
triglycerides:
The storage form of fat made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol group
insulin:
A polypeptide hormone functioning in the regulation of the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, especially the conversion of glucose to glycogen, which lowers the blood glucose level.
glucose:
Principal circulating sugar in the blood and the major energy source of the body.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are extremely small, spherical organelles made up of protein and RNA. They are the most numerous of cell organelles.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are other sac-like structures whose size and shape change with the degree of their activity. They start out small, and as they become active, they increase in size. Lysosomes contain a variety of enzymes, which act as catalysts, directing all major biochemical reactions.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
This organelle forms a network of intracellular canals within the cytoplasm. It exists in two forms: rough ER and smooth ER. Rough ER is ER with ribosomes attached. Here is where proteins and other biomolecules can be made and transported through the ER’s canal network to other parts of the cell and outside the cell.
Mitochondria
After the nucleus, mitochondria are probably the most known and talked about organelle in the athletic arena, due to their role in the generation of energy. Referred to as the powerhouse of the cell, mitochondria are small, complex organelles that resemble a sausage in shape. They consist of a smooth outer membrane, which surrounds an inner membrane, forming a sac within a sac
Golgi Apparatus
The Golgi apparatus consists of stacks of tiny oblong sacs embedded in the cytoplasm of the cell near the nucleus. Research has presented convincing evidence that the Golgi sacs are responsible for synthesis of carbohydrate biomolecules
Glycogen granule:
Structure of the cell that stores glycogen and enzymes for Glycogen breakdown and synthesis.
Gluconeogenesis:
Chemical process that Converts lactate and pyruvate back into glucose.
Glycolysis:
The metabolic process that creates energy from the splitting of glucose to form pyruvic acid, lactic acid and ATP
Epithelial Tissue
Epithelial tissue is found throughout the body: as a continuous external layer over the whole body (skin), on most of the body’s inner cavities, and making up the body several glands.
Squamous epithelium
is composed of one layer of flat cells. lt is located in the linings of the mouth, esophagus, and blood and lymphatic vessels
Cuboidal epithelium
is made of cube-shaped cells as found in the lining of kidney tubules.
columnar epithelium
resembles a column or pillar in shape. These cells are widespread throughout the body, forming linings in the digestive and respiratory tracts. They function as secretory cells or absorptive cells
Glandular epithelial cells
secrete mucus and hormones, such as those of the salivary and thymus glands.
Collagen fibers
Tough, strong fibers that form the major fibrous component of the skin, tendons, cartilage, ligaments, and teeth. They are made of the amino acids glycine, proline, lysine, hydroxyproline, and hydroxylysine.
Reticular fibers
delicate, supportive fibers of connective tissue that occur in networks and support structures such as capillaries and nerve fibers.
tendon:
Connective tissue that attaches muscle to bone.
ligament:
Connective tissue that connects bone to bone or bone to cartilage.
Muscle tissue
comprises approximately 43 percent of an average man’s bodyweight and 34 percent of an average woman’s bodyweight. Over 600 muscles work together with the support of the skeletal system to create motion.
nervous tissue:
The main component of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity.
Neurons
conduct nerve impulses, register sensory impulses, and conduct motor impulses. The central neuron body contains a nucleus surrounded by cytoplasm, and two projections at either end.
Neuroglia
consist of a delicate network of branched cells and fibers that supports the tissue of the central nervous system
Neurosecretory cells
large neurons that produce secretions, which travel along neuron axons and are typically released into the bloodstream. They function to translate neural signal into chemical stimuli in the body.
nervous tissue:
The main component of the nervous system; the brain and spinal cord of the central nervous system (CNS), and the branching peripheral nerves of the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which regulates and controls bodily functions and activity.
integumentary system:
System of the body consisting of the skin and its associated structures, such as the hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands.
skeletal system:
System of the body consisting of bone and cartilage that supports and protects the body.
muscular system
System of the body consisting of large skeletal muscles that allow us to move, cardiac muscle in the heart, and smooth muscle of the internal organs.
nervous system:
System comprised of brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. Regulates other systems.
endocrine system:
System consisting of the glands and tissues that release hormones. It works with the nervous system in regulating metabolic activities.
circulatory system:
System consisting of the heart and blood vessels that serves as the transportation system
lymphatic system:
Subsystem of the circulatory system, which protects the body against disease.
respiratory system:
System consisting of the lunes and air passageways, which supplies oxygen to the body and removes carbon dioxide”
digestive system:
System of the body consist;ng of the digestive tract and glands that secrete digestive juices into the digestive tract. Responsible for breaking down foods and eliminating waste.
urinary system:
Main excretory system of the body, which consists of the kidneys. ureter, urinary bladder, and urethra.
reproductive system:
System consisting of gonads, associated ducts. and external genitais concerned with sexual reproduction.
hemoglobin:
An oxygen transporting protein found in blood cells.
vital capacity:
The usable portion of the lungs
maximum minute volume:
The amount of air that a person can process during one minute of vigorous exercise.
reel dual volume:
The remainder of the air in the lungs after the usable lung volume has been measured.
Circulatory System
The circulatory system serves as the body’s transportation system. The heart, arteries, veins and blood vessels are parts of this system. The circulatory system consists of two subsystems: the cardiovascular system and the lymphatic system.
plasma:
The fluid portion of blood.
erythrocyte:
Blood cell that contains hemoglobin to carry oxygen to the bodily tissues; a biconcave disc that has no nucleus. Also known as red blood cell.
Leukocyte:
Cell whose primary function is to combat infections; also known as white blood cell.
platelet:
Cytoplasmic body found in the blood plasma that functions to promote blood clotting
alveoli:
Capillary-rich air sacs in the lungs where the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide takes place.
law of gaseous diffusion:
Law stating that a gas will move across a semipermeable membrane (e.g., alveolar, capillary) from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration.
osmosis:
The scientific process of transferring fluid between molecules.
diastolic pressure:
Pressure exerted on the walls of the blood vessels during the refilling of the heart.
fat lipid metabolism:
A metabolic process that breaks down ingested fats into fatty acids and glycerol and then into simpler compounds that can be used by cells of the body for general bodily function as well as energy production.
anaerobic:
Occurring without the use of oxygen.
aerobic:
Occurring with the use of oxygen, or requiring oxygen.
resting heart rate:
The number of times the heart beats in one minute: 72 beats per minute for the average adult.
maximum heart rate (HR max):
The highest rate at which an individual is capable: 220 minus age in years is equivalent to maximum heart rate.
sympathetic nervous system:
An automatic system that speeds up most activities in the body
adrenal glands:
Two glands that release hormones which helps the body cope with stress.
stroke volume:
The volume of blood pumped out of the heart into the circulatory system by the left ventricle in one contraction.
left ventricle ejection fraction:
The percentage of blood inside the left ventricle pushed out into the body after contraction.
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2, max):
The maximum usable portion of oxygen uptake over a period of time.
digestive system:
System of the body consisting of the digestive tract and glands that secrete digestive juices into the digestive tract. Responsible for breaking down foods and eliminating waste.
digestion:
The process of mechanical or chemical breakdown of food into absorbable molecules.
macronutrients;
A category of nutrients: including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats - that are present in foods in large amounts.
fructose:
Fruit sugar
lipogenesis:
The formation of fat.
nervous system:
The system comprised of the brain, spinal cord, sense organs and nerves. Regulates other systems.
nerve impulse:
A brief reversal of the membrane potential that sweeps along the membrane of a neuron.
central nervous system (CNS):
System of the body comprised of the brain and spinal column
the peripheral nervous system (PNS):
Relays messages from the CNS to the body (the efferent system) and relays messages to the CNS (the afferent system) from the body.
efferent system:
System designed to cause action; consists of the somatic
afferent system:
The part of the PNS that sends messages to the CNS.
somatic system:
The system responsible for voluntary action
autonomic system:
The system that processes and activates involuntary action.
contraction:
The shortening of a muscle or increase in tension.
insulin:
A polypeptide hcrmone functioning in the regulation of the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats, especially the conversion of glucose to glycogen, which lowers the blood glucose level.
glucagon:
A hormone produced by the pancreas that stimulates an increase in blood sugar levels, thus opposing the action of insulin.
glycogenolysis:
Process describing the cleavage of glucose from the glycogen molecule.
growth hormone (HGH or hGH):
A hormone secreted by the pituitary gland that affects skeletal growth rate and body weight gain.
epinephrine:
A hormone produced by the adrenal gland that causes the flight-or-fight response
the distal tubule of the kidney:
A twisted, tube-like structure found inside a part of the kidney known as the nephron.
cortisol:
A corticosteroid that causes a breakdown of protein in muscles.
ketosis:
An abnormal increase of ketone bodies in the body; usually the result of a low-carbohydrate diet fasting, or starvation.
musculoskeletal system:
The body system that consists of the bones, joints, connective tissue, and muscles.
skeletal system:
System of the body consisting of bone and cartilage that supports and protects the body.
axial skeleton:
Bones consisting of the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum.
appendicular skeleton:
Bones consisting of the upper and lower extremities, including the pelvis and shoulder girdles.
musculotendinous:
0f, relating to, or affecting muscular and tendinous tissue.
joint:
Point where two bones connect.
synovial fluid:
A fluid that lubricates the smooth cartilage in joints.
collagen:
Fibrous protein that forms tough connective tissue.
tendon:
The fibrous connective tissue that connects muscle to bone.
feedback loop:
Section of a control system that serves as a regulatory mechanism; return input as some of the output.
ligament:
The fibrous connective tissue that connects bone to bone or bone to cartilage, to hold together and support joints
elastin:
Elastic fibrous protein found in connective tissue.
cartilage:
A firm, elastic flexible′ white material found at the ends of ribs′ between Vertebrae(diSCS)′ at joint surfaces′ and in the nose and ears.
ballistic movements:
Muscle contractions that exhibit maximum velocities and accelerations over a very short period of time. They exhibit high firing rates, high force production, and very brief contraction times
muscle spindles:
Sensory receptors within the belly of a muscle that primarily detect changes in the length of this muscle. Measures and delivers the quantity of muscle force needed to perform a given action
myofibrils:
Tiny fibrils that make up a single muscle fiber
sarcoplasm:
Jellylike intracellular fluid found in the muscle fibre.
sliding filament theory:
A theory stating that myofibril contracts by the actin and myosin filaments sliding over each other.
isometric:
A contraction in which the muscle develops tension but does not shorten.
isotonic:
A contraction in which the muscle shortens but retains constant tension.
concentric:
A contraction in which a muscle shortens and overcomes resistance.
eccentric:
A contraction in which a muscle lengthens and is overcome by a resistance
lactic acid:
A byproduct of glucose and glycogen metabolism (glycolysis) in anaerobic muscle energetics
pennate
A muscle in which fibers extend obliquely from either side of a central tendon
size principle of fibre recruitment:
The principle stating that motor units are recruited in order according to their recruitment thresholds and firing rates.
all-or-none reaction:
Concept stating that a unit is either completely relaxed or fully contracted; it is never partly contracted.
stretch reflex:
A built-in protective function of the neuromuscular system in the muscle spindle.
proprioceptor:
Specialized sensory receptors located in tendons and muscles sensitive to stretch, tension, pressure, and position of the body. Proprioceptors include muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs.
anatomy:
The science of the structure of the human body.
physiology:
The science concerned with the normal vital processes of animal and vegetable organisms.
biochemistry:
the branch of science concerned with the chemical and physicochemical processes that occur within living organisms.
aerobic:
Occurring with the use of oxygen, or requiring oxygen.
hypertrophy:
An increase in the cross-sectional size of a muscle in response to strength training.
capillarization:
An increase in size and number of tiny blood vessels surrounding cells.
