introduction to physiology

Question 1

definition physiology + anatomy

Answer 1

Def Physiology: its the study of the normal functioning of an organism. It is the processes, how organs work, communication on a systemic and local cellular level

Def anatomy: its the study of structure. Identification and description of the structure of mammals

Question 2

definition gross anatomy and microanatomy

Answer 2

Def gross anatomy: study of the body and its parts using only the naked eye

Def microanatomy: tissues and cells i.e. histology and cytology

**studying the flow of blood through the heart requires knowledge of anatomy. How this occurs requires knowledge of physiology

Question 3

What makes a cell specialized? + 4 Factors essential for differentiation

Answer 3

What makes a cell specialized?
Rep: control of gene expression and unique cell-specific transcriptomes and proteomes
Stem cells induced to become differentiated cells
- Factors essential for differentiation:
1. Cell-cell communication
2. Growth factos
3. ECM (extracellular matrix) composition
Cell location in differentiating embryo

Question 4

definition gastrulation + examples for 3 germ layers

Answer 4

Def gastrulation: gives rises to the primary germ layers endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm

Cells and tissues types arising from the 3 major germ layers that form during gastrulation:

1. Ectoderm
- Integument (skin)
- Lens of the eyes
- Nervous system

2. Mesoderm (all the muscles)
- Circulatory system
- Excretory system
- Muscles
- Connective tissue
- Organs (ex kidney)

3. Endoderm
- Lining of digestive and respiratory tract Parts of liver, pancreas, thyroid and bladder

Question 5

epithelial: different branch, functions, where we found it

Answer 5

BRANCHES:
	Divide in 3:
	- SIMPLE
	- STRATIFIED
	- GLANDULAR (can be exocrine or endocrine)
SIMPLE AND STRATIFIED can have 3 categories:
	1. Squamous
	2. Columnar
	3. Cuboidal
** simple can also be: pseudo-stratified
** stratified can also be: transitional

CHARACTERISTICS: one or more layers of densely arranged cells with very little ECM
FUNCTIONS:
1. Covers and protect the body surface (sheets)
2. Lines body cavities
3. Movements of substances, glandular activity (secretory)
WHERE FOUND:
- Skin
- Lining of respiratory tract
- Digestive tract
- Urinary
Glands of the body

Question 6

connective tissue: different branch, functions, where we found it

Answer 6

3 MAJOR TYPES:
	1. Connective tissue proper
	- Dense (regular (all the fibers are in a linear direction) or irregular)
	- Loose (areolar, adipose, reticular)
	2. Fluid
	- Blood
	- lymphe
	3. Supporting
	- Bone
cartilage

CHARACTERISTICS: few cells surrunded by lots of ECM
- ECM is made of fibres in a protein and polysaccharides matrix, secreted and organize by cells in the ECM (fibroblasts)
- The cells sit in a mattrix made of: glycoproteins, fibrous proteins and glycosoaminoglycans
- Variations in the composition of the ECM determines the properties of the connective tissue
Ex: if the matrix is calcified, it can form bone or teeth
- Specialised forms of ECM comprise tendons, cartilage vs
General connective tissue is either loose, or dense depending on the arrangement of the fibres

FUNCTIONS:
1. Connect anchors and supports body structures, transport
2. Provides structural and metabolic support
WHERE:
- Bone, tendons,
blood fat

Question 7

muscle: different branch, functions, where we found it

Answer 7

3 MAJOR TYPES:
1. Skeletal
2. Cardiac
Smooth (digestive tract to promote proteostalims.. So around different systems for the movement ex: uterus)

CHARACTERISTICS: long fiberlike cells
FUNCTIONS: can contract and generate force
WHERE ITS FOUND: heart skeletal muscle, surrunding hollow organs such as bladder and unterus

Question 8

nervous tissue: different branch, functions, where we found it

Answer 8

CHARACTERISTICS: cells specialized for conducting nerve impulses. Many types
FUNCTIONS: initiate and transmit electrical impulses
WHERE IT FOUND: brain, spinal cord and nerves

Question 9

composition of homeostasis regulation

Answer 9

1. SENSOR: detects and reacts to any changes from normal set point
   
   2. INTEGRATING, OR CONTROL, CENTER: information is analyzed and if needed, a specific action is initiated
   3. EFFECTOR MECHANISM: brings about the change to return to the set point
      FEEDBACK: process of information about a variable constantly flowing back from the sensor to the integrator

Question 10

characteristics negative feedback (4)

Answer 10

Negative feedback control systems:
- Are inhibitory
- Act to reset physiological variables
- Are responsible for maintaining homeostasis i.e. stabilize system
Are much more common than positive feedback

Question 11

characteristics positive feedback (4)

Answer 11

Positive feedback control systems (non homeostatic)
- Are stimulatory
- Amplify or reinforce the change that is occuring
- Tend to produce destabilizong effects and disrupt homeostasis
Bring specific body functions to swift completion

Question 12

3 levels of control for homeostasis

Answer 12

INTRACELLULAR:
- Operate within cells
- Genes or enzymes often regulate cell processes
- Ex: Pancreas (exocrine) (blood glucose regulation + exocrine regulation (produce enzymes for digestion ex: lipase and pancreas produces its own enzymes)
INTRISINSIC CONTROL (autoregulation)
- Regulation within tissues or organs
- May involve chemical signal ex: growth factors in ovary
- Ex: kidney
EXTRACELLULAR CONTROL
- Regulate from organ to organ
- May involve nerve signals
- May involve endocrine signals (hormones)