Introduction & Module Overview (Level 4) Flashcards
What are lay views in individual differences?
The implicit theories about individual differences that we all have.
What appear to work in everyday life to help us understand others?
Lay views of individual differences
Do we often or rarely test lay views of individual differences?
Rarely
What are often subject to confirmation bias?
Lay views of individual differences
In what context do we observe most people we meet?
Only in a limited context/ through the lens of a specific relationship
What is the aim of the study of individual differences?
To describe, explain, research, test, and most importantly, understand, the motivational basis for behaviour.
How many basic kinds of ‘differences’ are there in relation to academic individual differences?
4
What are the 4 basic kinds of ‘difference’ in relation to academic individual differences?
Interpersonal, intrapersonal, intragroup & intergroup.
What kind of differences are interpersonal differences?
Difference between 2 people
What kind of differences are intrapersonal differences?
Slight variations within a person, including individual profiles (e.g. emotional state)
What can impact IQ?
Emotional state
What kind of differences are intragroup differences?
Differences within a group (e.g. some individuals with a high IQ may score higher in verbal IQ & slightly lower on spatial IQ)
What kind of differences are intergroup differences?
Differences between groups based on constructs
What does each group have when talking about intergroup differences?
Shared features
What kind of academic individual differences are there?
Physiological (categorical/ scalable), sociological (categorical/ scalable), behavioural/ lifestyle-related (categorical, but vaguer), or psychological (inferred as we can’t see them).
What questions about academic individual differences need to be addressed?
Are differences psychologically meaningful? Are correlations stable? Are relationships causal? Are the positive & negative outcomes & associations the results of differentiating factors or the meaning society places on them?
What does the academic approach to individual differences entail?
4 basic kinds of ‘difference’
What do academic individual differences impact, as well as being used to categorise people?
How people are treated
In terms of academic individual differences, what can lead to stigmatisation & even harm for some people?
Being differentiated from normal.
In terms of academic individual differences, are individuals with physical disabilities often able or unable to do what most normal people can do?
Unable
In terms of academic individual differences, which ability is often further restricted due to lack of resources?
The ability of physically disabled individuals to do what most normal people can do
In terms of academic individual differences, if we were to remove restrictions that physically disabled individuals face due to a lack of resources, what can often happen?
The abilities of disabled individuals can often bypass those of normal individuals.
Which combination could determine the impact of academic individual differences?
The combination of the difference (be that physical/ psychological), the meaning placed on the difference, & social structures that either dismiss or are not structured to accommodate the difference.
What do we need to do if we’re going to say that a construct/ factor determines one’s academic success, happiness & ability to function?
Tread with care
What is a cornerstone area of modern psychology?
Academic individual differences
What is part of the classic psychology that most people think of?
Academic individual differences
What are the key focuses & assumed associations of academic individual differences?
Behavioural differences associated with personality, ability & attribute differences associated with intelligence, & functioning & well-being differences associated with mental health.
What are the fundamental aims of academic individual differences in psychology?
To develop an adequate taxonomy of how people differ, to apply differences found in 1 situation to predict differences in another, to test theoretical explanations of the structure & dynamics of academic individual differences, & to draw implications (e.g. treatments).
How can we develop an adequate taxonomy of how people differ in academic individual differences?
By describing the constructs that people differ on, agreeing on their main features & demonstrating in what way they’re meaningful.
What are examples of academic individual differences?
Differences in personality, work, risk of poor mental health & intelligence.
What could academic individual differences be correlated with?
Intra-group differences (e.g. gender)
What are potential characteristics of academic individual differences?
They could be observable/ measurable, & there could either be 1 or multiple of them within a particular dimension.
What are different theories of academic individual differences?
That these differences have biological causes between groups & people, that differences have social/ environmental causes (are learnt), or that differences have intrapersonal causes (which can be looked at via psychoanalysis)
What can you ultimately change about someone in terms of academic individual differences?
Their personality, intelligence & mental health
What does ontology question?
Being, whether a construct exists or not, & if it does, how it can be divided.
In terms of what can we differ?
Ontological views
What do ontological realists believe?
That what we perceive is there & exists in the absence of the observer (the core feature can be defined)
What do ontological relativists believe?
That reality is socially constructed from discursive & linguistics resources (the construct only exists in relation to the observer)
What both have extreme versions in relation to ontological views within the social sciences?
Ontological realist & ontological relativist views.
Is there a middle ground view between the ontological realist & relativist views, or is there only each extreme?
There’s a middle ground
What is the middle ground view between the ontological realist & relativist views?
Ontological critical realist views (that reality exists, but is mediated by cultural & discursive factors)
What kind of individual differences are there?
Genetic, biological, behavioural, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, & social differences.
What is epistemology?
The study of the relationship between the world & our understanding
What kind of split is there not necessarily in terms of epistemology?
A straightforward quantitative-qualitative split.
What do epistemological essentialists believe?
That things have fixed characteristics that can be discovered & objectively measured via research.
What do epistemological positivists believe?
Only that which can be scientifically/ mathematically verified should be acknowledged
How is epistemological positivism achieved in the social sciences?
Via operationalisation so as to define & devise measurements to provide indication.
What do epistemological relativists believe?
That knowledge itself exists in relation to culture, history & context
What do epistemological social constructivists believe?
That knowledge itself is a social creation
When researching individual differences, what can we examine & explore?
Shared human nature (how we are all the same), the dimensions of individual differences (how we are the same as some people but not everyone), & unique patterns of individuals (how we are like no one else)
What do analyses of individual differences focus on?
Genetic codes & biological differences, sexual, social, ethnic & cultural differences, & cognitive abilities, emotional reactions & interpersonal styles.
What is the full range of methodology used in the study of individual differences employed from?
Traditional laboratory experiments, longitudinal field studies & the analysis of language & discourse.
How many epistemological approaches can the methodology used in the study of individual differences be grouped into?
2
What are the 2 epistemological approaches that the methodology used in the study of individual differences can be grouped into?
The nomothetic & idiographic approaches
What is the strategy of the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
To emphasise the uniqueness of an individual
What is the strategy of the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
To focus on similarities & differences between groups of individuals (individuals are only unique in the way that their traits combine with others’)
What is the aim of the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
To develop an in-depth understanding of an individual.
What is the aim of the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
To identify a basic structure/ category system to be able to describe personalities or disorders universally.
What methodologies are used to carry out research in the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
Qualitative methodologies (so some generalisation is possible across various cases, but only if it’s contextualised)
What methodologies are used to carry out research in the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
Quantitative methodologies (to ensure the structures are explored, that valid measurements/ assessments are produced, & to explore the relationships between variables across groups)
How is data collected in the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
Via interviews, diaries, personal narratives, & treatment sessions
How is data collected in the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
Via self-report, questionnaires & physical assessments.
What is the advantage of the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
You get an in-depth understanding of an individual
What is the advantage of the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
You discover general principles that have a predictive function
What are the limitations of the idiographic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
It can be difficult to generalise from the data & it doesn’t fit the normal ways of checking validity & reliability.
What are the limitations of the nomothetic epistemological approach to the study of individual differences?
It can lead to a fairly superficial understanding of any 1 person & training is needed to make measurements/ assessments.
What are the 2 ways that things can be measured in the study of individual differences?
Categorically/ dimensionally
What is an example of a question that could be asked when carrying out a categorical measurement within the study of individual differences?
“Has the person had low affect for more than 2 weeks?”
What are the 3 possible answers to the categorical question “has the person had low affect for more than 2 weeks?”?
“Yes”, “no” or “undecided”
What conclusion could be drawn if the answer to the categorical question “has the person had low affect for more than 2 weeks?” was “yes”?
That they have depression
What conclusion could be drawn if the answer to the categorical question “has the person had low affect for more than 2 weeks?” was “no”?
That they possibly have a condition other than depression
What is an example of a dimensional measurement?
Daily mood level
What range could daily mood level be dimensionally measured within?
1-10
Would a dimensional measurement of between 1 and 5 of daily mood level be considered low or high?
Low
Would a dimensional measurement of between 6 and 10 of daily mood level be considered low or high?
High
In relation to the study of individual differences, what can be measured?
Physical differences, test scores on questionnaires & assessment scales, childhood experiences, cognition & aptitude, & neurological differences
What types of data are commonly used when researching individual differences?
Q-data, L-data, T-data, &, less commonly, projective data & interviews.
What is Q-data?
Data derived from responses to questionnaires
What is L-data?
Data derived from natural, everyday life that is usually quantifiable (e.g. income/ school grades)
What is T-data?
Standard experimental data
If there is a great correlation between Q-, L- & T-data, does a theory/ model have a lot or little support?
A lot
If there is a little correlation between Q-, L- & T-data, does a theory/ model have a lot or little support?
Little
What does the word abnormal imply?
That something’s undesirable & requires changing.
What do psychologists need methods for?
Distinguishing normality from abnormality.
What must any definition of abnormality be?
Objective, consistent, not under- or over-inclusive.
How many adults seek mental health services in England?
1 in 6
Since when has the number of adults seeking mental health services in England steadily risen?
Since the early 2000s
What shot up since the beginning of lockdown?
The number of adults seeking mental health services in England.
What percentage of people with diagnosable mental illness do not receive treatment?
75%
What percentage of ill health & disability in England do mental health problems account for?
23%
What percentage of the NHS budget is dedicated to mental health?
11%
What are the 4 means for defining abnormality?
Statistical infrequency, deviation from social norms, failure to function adequately & deviation from ideal mental health
What are the 4 ‘D’s?
Deviance, dysfunction, distress & danger
What does deviance refer to when discussing the 4 ‘D’s?
Behaviours & emotions that are viewed as unacceptable.
What does dysfunction refer to when discussing the 4 ‘D’s?
Behaviour that is significantly interfering with everyday tasks & other aspects of life.
What does distress refer to when discussing the 4 ‘D’s?
Being unhappy
What does danger refer to when discussing the 4 ‘D’s?
When behaviour harms or puts at risk, an individual or those around them.
How can statistical infrequency be visualised?
Via a normal distribution curve
What does statistical infrequency refer to?
The distance you are from the average.
How is statistical infrequency usually defined?
In 2 or more SD.
What are 2 possible outcomes when assessing distribution?
Negatively or positively skewed data.
What are the advantages of assessing statistical infrequency?
It’s objective & provides a useful overview
When assessing statistical infrequency, what makes it clear what is abnormal versus what isn’t?
The mathematical nature of this method (using 2 standard deviations)
Which method takes a whole population into account, & is, therefore, able to provide a useful insight into the whole picture of a particular characteristic?
Assessing statistical infrequency
Which method takes a whole population into account, & is, therefore, able to provide a useful insight into the whole picture of a particular characteristic?
Assessing statistical infrequency
What are the disadvantages of assessing statistical infrequency?
It doesn’t consider desirable traits/ behaviours (e.g. genius-level IQ); it doesn’t take cultural differences that may affect behaviour into account; if a person’s score is based on self-report (e.g. on a depression inventory), the data are subjective (despite the overall test being reliable); & it’s based on inferenced constructs.
What do many rare behaviours/ characteristics have no bearing on?
Normality/ abnormality
How many individual difference-related perspectives take a deterministic stance (A causes B)?
Some
What requires scepticism & an indeterministic approach?
Science
What is 1 aim of science?
Not to say what will happen, but rather what may happen given the presence/ absence of certain constructs (the chance/ probability of an outcome happening).
How can we find out the chance/ probability of an outcome happening?
By making predictions
What can we predict in science by devising probabilities?
Universal trends
What can we not predict in science?
Individual trends
Why do scientists partially fail in making predictions?
Because the degree of error in predicting individual trends is too large.
What is hidden bias?
When facts/ assumptions are taken for granted
Who reject the assumption of a universal truth & support the idea of hidden bias?
Post-positivist researchers & theories
What do post-positivist researchers & theories believe about truth?
That truth is negotiated & that language plays an important role in it.
Which questions do post-positivist researchers & theories encourage?
Those of hidden bias
What isn’t a problem if you think that a shared genome & physical structure are the only influences on the mind & behaviour?
Sampling 1 population & extrapolating its data to everyone (making it a “statistical subject” of psychology).
When we sample 1 population & extrapolate its data to everyone (making it a “statistical subject” of psychology), what do we essentially rule out?
The influence of the socioeconomic milieu in which each person is born & raised & in which they currently exist.
When we sample 1 population & extrapolate its data to everyone (making it a “statistical subject” of psychology), what do we risk?
Only looking at people like us
What is the basis of the social norms definition of abnormality?
That behaviour that does not conform to social norms is understandably abnormal, but that cultural, situational, historical, age-related, & gender-related context must be taken into account.
What vary across cultures & over time?
Social norms
What varies along with social norms?
Peoples’ conceptions of abnormality.
What was regarded as a mental illness until 1973?
Homosexuality
Are cross-cultural misunderstandings common or rare?
Common
What could contribute to a high diagnosis rate of schizophrenia among non-white British people?
Cross-cultural misunderstandings
What can the classification of abnormality (in terms of violation of social norms) only be based on?
The context in which behaviour occurs.
Can undressing in the bathroom/ classroom be viewed as normal/ abnormal depending on context, or is it always viewed as either normal/ abnormal?
It depends on the context.
Is a subjective or objective judgement usually necessary when assessing whether social norms have been violated?
A subjective one
What may be unknown to an observer when judging a behaviour as violating social norms?
Situational factors
What are the strengths of the social norms definition of abnormality?
It’s easy to operationalise (as it matches what’s expected in daily life), it takes into account that there is no universal rule on what’s normal (by explaining why different cultures have different ideas of what is normal/ abnormal behaviour), & it takes individual differences into account (it looks at people in their own right & doesn’t generalise).
Is someone that is highly intelligent (statistically abnormal) considered normal (mentally well)/ abnormal (mentally ill)?
Normal (mentally well)
What are the limitations of the social norms definition of abnormality?
It lacks objectivity, it’s more focused on what’s unacceptable rather than what it means to be mentally ill (in this case it’s too subjective), it doesn’t specify an approach to treatment, & it doesn’t help address causes & correlations beyond those of social factors.
Why is it difficult to categorise meaningful differences with the social norms definition of abnormality?
Because it lacks objectivity
What is the idea behind the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality?
Rather than defining abnormality, we should define normality/ ideality, & regard anything that deviates from that as abnormality.
Who came up with the ideal mental health definition of abnormality?
Jahoda (1958)
What, according to Jahoda (1958), does being in ideal mental health look like?
Having high self-esteem & a personal identity, growing personally & self-actualising, being able to integrate (cope with stressful situations), being autonomous (independent & able to look after yourself), having an accurate perception of reality (not seeing life in a way that no one else perceives it) & being able to adjust to new environments.
What book did Jahoda write?
“Current Concepts of Positive Mental Health”
What are the problems with the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality?
It’s unrealistic & meaningless (it’s unlikely for someone to meet all of its criteria) & it’s ethnocentric (non-Western cultures can’t relate to its criteria, meaning that the definition isn’t global)
According to the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality, when is a person considered abnormal?
If they’re unable to cope with the demands of everyday life.
According to the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality, what may abnormal people be unable to do?
Perform the behaviours necessary for day-to-day living (e.g. engaging in self-care, holding down a job, interacting meaningfully with others, & making themselves understood)
Who suggested that the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality can be characterised by; suffering, maladaptiveness (being a danger to oneself), vividness & unconventionality, unpredictability & loss of control, irrationality, causing an observer discomfort, & violating moral/ social standards?
Rosenhan & Seligman (1989)
What are the limitations of the failure to function adequately definition of abnormality?
Adequate functioning is largely defined by social norms, most people fail to function adequately sometimes but aren’t considered abnormal, & many people engage in maladaptive behaviours but aren’t considered to be abnormal.
When do most people find it hard to cope normally (essentially failing to function adequately)?
After a bereavement
When may a person, ironically, be considered abnormal if they functioned adequately?
After a bereavement
What are examples of maladaptive behaviours that “normal” people engage in?
Doing adrenaline-evoking sports, smoking, drinking alcohol & skipping classes.
What has most of what we know about individual differences grown out of?
Our attempt to understand & explain abnormality in psychology.
While we have moved away from linking individual differences to mental illnesses, what still exists?
A strong assumption that the 2 are linked (particularly with issues like self-image, anxiety & depression)
What were all individual differences historically related to?
Understanding normality & abnormality
How many general theories of the aetiology of mental illness have there been throughout history?
3 (supernatural theories, somatogenic theories, & psychogenic theories)
What was the idea behind supernatural theories of the aetiology of mental illness (5000 BC)?
That religious/ spiritual influences explain behaviour.
What, according to demology, was thought to be caused by demons/ animal spirits taking over the body?
Mental illness
What was, historically, the treatment for mental illness based on supernatural theories of the aetiology of mental illness?
Exorcism/ torture
Why was the treatment for mental illness exorcism/ torture historically?
Because people believed that if you abused the body badly enough, the spirit inside will want to leave it.
What did early Christian beliefs speak of (as evidenced in ancient Egyptian & Greek writings)?
The Holy Ghost & devil battling in the mind of individuals for possession of their souls.
Which theories of the aetiology of mental illness caused trepanning to be a method of mental illness treatment in 5000 BC?
Supernatural theories
What is trepanning?
When a small instrument is used to bore holes in the skull to allow evil spirits to leave a possessed individual.
Which theories are based on Hippocrates’ views on the aetiology of mental illness (400 BC)?
Somatogenic theories
What did Hippocrates deny?
That deities/ demons cause mental illness
How did Hippocrates view abnormal behaviour?
As biological in nature
Who believed that if you take care of your body, your mind will also be taken care of, forming the basis of somatogenic theories of the aetiology of mental illness?
Hippocrates
What treatment was borne out of somatogenic theories of the aetiology of mental illness?
The modification of the environment (e.g. favouring a tranquil lifestyle, sobriety, exercise, & abstinence from excess)
Who believed that patients needed to choose physical health over mental illness?
Hippocrates
Since when has there been a growing interest in seeking an explanation as to why individuals behave differently?
Since the time of the ancient Greeks.
What are viewed as key differentiators between individuals’ behaviours?
Madness & rationality
Who said that in defining madness, we must take care to “carve nature at the joints”, rather than “hacking it to pieces like a clumsy butcher”?
Socrates
How many types of madness were there believed by Socrates to be?
2 (1 caused by biological diseases & 1 caused by the violation of conventions of conduct)
Between what have we (in many ways) been vacillating between ever since the time of the ancient Greeks?
The 2 types of madness proposed by Socrates (1 caused by biological diseases & 1 caused by the violation of conventions of conduct)
How have we (in many ways) been vacillating between the 2 types of madness proposed by Socrates ever since the time of the ancient Greeks?
We believe that mental illness is a discrete, measurable entity that’s linked to the body, & we also believe that mental illness is a social construct that’s linked to how we live in & engage with the world.
What did Galen suggest represented temperaments based on bodily fluids?
Humours
What did Galen’s proposed humours explain?
Most, if not all, individual differences (e.g. differences in personality, intelligence, morality & mental illness)
What did Galen believe that all individual differences were linked to?
The same cause- the balance (excess & reduction) of the humours.
Which treatments were suggested by Galen for mental illness?
Massage, blood-letting & the prescription of emetics.
Which common phrases are still around today that relate to Galen’s ideas?
“Draughts cause colds” & “my blood is boiling”
According to Galen’s theory of humours, what were the characteristics of people with excess black bile?
They had sluggish personalities that were associated with autumn, earth & adulthood.
According to Galen’s theory of humours, what were the characteristics of people with excess yellow bile?
They had personalities that were associated with summer, fire, anger & youth.
According to Galen’s theory of humours, what were the characteristics of people with excess blood?
They had personalities that were associated with spring, passion, air & childhood.
According to Galen’s theory of humours, what were the characteristics of people with excess phlegm?
They had melancholic personalities that were associated with winter, water & old age.
Which humour, according to Galen, is associated with excess black bile?
The melancholic type
Which humour, according to Galen, is associated with excess yellow bile?
The choleric type
Which humour, according to Galen, is associated with excess blood?
The sanguine type
Which humour, according to Galen, is associated with excess phlegm?
The phlegmatic type
What interesting observation is associated with Galen’s humours theory?
That we have 4 important neurotransmitters (serotonin, dopamine, glutamate & norepinephrine) which could correspond to his proposed humours.
What happened during the Age of Enlightenment?
A more humanitarian view of mental illness evolved (curing the individual became most important), private asylums that were aimed at treating rather than incarcerating emerged in the UK & US, and there was a shift in the standard of care (it became more focused on dignity & courtesy & placed more emphasis on the therapeutic & moral value of physical work)
Who came up with the idea of phrenology?
Franz Joseph Gall (1896)
What did phrenology encompass?
Both moral philosophy & neuroanatomy
What was used to categorise children (as slow learners, disorderly & at risk of mental disorders) & adults (as imbeciles, criminals & degenerates)?
Phrenology
What was conducted to measure the physiological features of groups of individuals (according to sex, social class, race, & nationality)?
Phrenological research
Which scientific field lacked correlations, at the same time as scientific interest was shifting?
The field of phrenology
When were psychoanalysis & psychotropic medications born?
In the 19th & 20th centuries.
Who started to treat hysteria through hypnosis, the cathartic method & ultimately psychoanalysis during the first half of the 20th century?
Josef Breuer (1842 -1925) & Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939).
What was being introduced as a psychiatric treatment in the mid-20th century?
Psychotropic medication (drug treatments)
Who were the 18th- & 19th-century pioneers of psychiatry?
Josef Breuer & Sigmund Freud
What was the focus of psychogenic theories?
Traumatic/ stressful experiences, maladaptive learnt associations & cognitions/ distorted perceptions.
What are the primary focuses of modern-day treatments?
Either somatogenic (biological)/ psychogenic explanations & treatments.
What are examples of modern-day psychogenic explanations & treatments?
Psychological theories linked to various talk therapies.
Which persistent dilemma is associated with studying the brain & neuropsychology?
Observing differences doesn’t necessarily answer what causes the differences.
What is an example of the persistent dilemma associated with studying the brain & neuropsychology?
There are neurological brain differences between introverts & extroverts, however, there are several possible explanations for why this is.
What are the possible explanations for the neurological brain differences between introverts & extroverts?
It could be natural, living & behaving like an extrovert could cause neurological brain changes, thoughts such as believing you are either an extrovert/ introvert could cause neurological brain changes, there could be a feedback loop between 1 or more of these explanations, or there could be a complex interaction between all of these explanations.
Which debate persists?
The debate between whether there is a single, or are multiple, causes.
Which biological influences may contribute to the development of psychological disorders?
The genetic make-up of an individual & an individual’s brain structure & balance of neurotransmitters.
Which psychological influences may contribute to the development of psychological disorders?
An individual’s response to stress & patterns of negative thinking.
Which socio-cultural influences may contribute to the development of psychological disorders?
Cultural expectations, sociocultural beliefs about abnormality & disorder, stigma & prejudice, homelessness & abuse.
What kind of influences can contribute to the cause of psychological disorders?
Biological, socio-cultural & psychological influences.
