Intro Flashcards
basic anatomy and physiology concepts
Anatomy
(cut apart) the study of structure of body parts and their relationships to one another
Physiology
the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery
Gross Anatomy
macro anatomy
Regional Gross Anatomy
all structures in one part of the body
systematic
gross anatomy of the body studied by system
surface
gross anatomy study of internal structures as they relate to the overlying skin
microscopic anatomy
small level
Cytology
Study of the cell
Histology
study of the tissues
Dvpmental Anatomy
traces structural changes throughout life
Embryology
study of dvpmental changes of the body before birth
Pathological Anatomy
study of structural changes caused by disease
Radiographic anatomy
study of internal structures visualized by x ray
Molecular Bio
study of anatomical structures at a sub cellular level
Renal Physiology
kidney function
Neurophysiology
workings of the nervous sys
Cardiovascular physiology
op of the heart and blood vessels
what does physiology often focus on ?
cellular and molecular level
Principle of Complementarity of structure and f(x)
F(x) always reflects structure
structures capability depends on its form
ex) bones will support and protect cuz of mineral deposits
blood will flow in one direction
What are the 6 levels of structural organization?
Chemical (atoms) Cellular(cells made up of molecules) Tissue (made of cells) Organs (made of tissues) Organ Sys ( organs working together) Organismal (organ sys)
Integumentary Sys
Forms the external body covering
Skin, sweat glands, oil glands, hair, and nails
Protects deeo tissues from injury and synthesizes vitamin D
Skeletal Sys
bone, cartilage, and ligaments protects and supports body organs provides the framework for muscles site of blood cell formation stores minerals
Muscular Sys
muscles and tendons
allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion and facial expressions
maintains posture
produces heat
Nervous Sys
brain, spinal column and nerves
is the fast acting ctrl sys of the body
responds to stimuli by activating muscle and glands
cardiovascular sys
heart and blood vessels
heart pumps blood
blood vessels transport throughout the body
Lymphatic Sys
Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes and lymphatic vessels
pick up fluid leaked from blood vessels and return it to blood
dipoles of debris in the lymphatic stream
houses white blood cells involved w/ immunity
Respiratory Sys
Nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs
Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes co2
Digestive Sys
Oral Cavity, esophagus, stomach, small/large intestine, rectum, anus, and liver
breaks down food into absorbable units that enters the blood
eliminates indegestible foodstuffs as feces
Urinary Sys
kidney, ureters, urinary bladder and urethra
rids nitrogenous wastes from body
regulates water, electrolytes, and pH balance of the blood
Male Reproductive Sys
prostate gland, penis, testes and scrotum main f(x) is the production of offspring testes yield sperm and male sex hormones ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female rep rod tract
Female Reprod Sys
mam gland, ovarie , uterine tubes (fallopian), uterus, and vag Main f(x) is the production of offspring ovaries yield eggs and female sex hormones remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and dvp of the fetus mam glands yield milk to nourish the newborn
Organ Sys Interelations
how are nutrients and o2 distributed?
blood
how is metabolic waste eliminated?
urinary and resp sys
Maintaining Boundaries
the internal environment remains distinct from external (blood brain)
Maintaining Bounds Cellular lvl
accomplished by plasma membrane
Maintaining Bounds Organism lvl
accomplished by skin
Movement
locomotion, propulsion (peristalsis, and contractility
Responsiveness
ability to sense changes in the environment and respond to them
Digestion
breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
metabolism
all the chemical reactions that occur in the body
excretion
removal of wastes from the body
reproduction
cellular and organismal levels
cellular reproduction
an oringal cell divides and yields two daughter cells
organismal reproduction
sperm and egg unite to make a whole new person
growth
increase in size of a body part or the organism, constructive activities must occur at a faster rate than destructive ones
Nutrients
chem substances used for energy and cell building
O2
needed for metabolic rxn 21%
Water
provides necessary environment for chem runs makes up 60-80% of body
maintain normal body temp
Normal body temp
37 degrees cels
98.6 f
Atmospheric Pressure
req’d for proper breathing and gas exchange in the lungs
Walter Cannon
Physiology that conceptionalized homestasis
Homeostatis
ability to maintain a relativey stable internal environment in an ever-changing outside world
internal environment of the body is in a dynamic state of equilibrium
Chemical thermal and neural factors interact to maintain homeostasis
Homeostatic Ctrl Mech
Variable produces a change in the body that have three comments (receptors, ctrl center, effector)
Receptor
monitors the environments and responds to changes (stimuli)
inputs afferent pathways
Control Center
determines the set point at which the variable is maintained
Effector
provides the means to respond to the stimulus
outputs efferent pathways
Negative Feedback Sys
output shuts off the original stimulus
ex) Regulation of Blood Glucose levels
Positive Feedback Sys
output enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus
Cascade (keeps happening)
Out of Ctrl
Oxytocin ( hormone released during love and uterine contractions)
ex) Blood Clotting
Too much of this system can cause stroke or an embolism
Homeostatic Imbalance
disturbance of homeostasis or the body’s normal equilibrium
diseases
Age
Overwhelming of negative feedback mech allowing destructive positive feedback mech to take over
ex) heart failure
Anatomical Position
Describe body parts and position
Need Initial Reference Point
Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing fwd, thumbs point away from body
normal
Directional Terms
explain where one body structure is relative to another
Superior
structure is higher than
Inferior
structure is lower than
anterior
in front of
posterior
in back of/ behind
Medial
moving toward middle
Lateral
move to side (left or right)
intermediate
between lateral and medial
Proximal
closer to origin of body part
distal
farther from original body part
superficial
toward surface
deep
away from body surface
Regional Term Use
to designate specific areas within major body divisions
2 Major Regions
Axial
Appendicular
Axial
head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular
appendages or limbs
anterior/ventral
front
posterior/dorsal
back
Abdominal
anterior body trunk inferior to ribs (anterior)
acromial
point of shoulder (anterior)
antebrachial
forearm (anterior)
antecubital
anterior surface of elbow
axillary
(anterior) armpit
brachial
(anterior) arm
buccal
cheek area
carpal
wrist
cervical
neck region
coxal
hip
crural
leg
deltoid
curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
digital
fingers toes
femoral
thigh
fibular
lateral part of leg
frontal
forehead
inguinal
area where thigh meets body trunk; groin
mental
chin
nasal
nose area
oral
mouth
orbital
eye area
patellar
anterior knee
pelvic
area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
pubic
genital region
sternal
breastbone area
tarsal
ankle region
thoracic
chest
umbilical
navel
posterior body landmarks
888
calcaneal
heel of foot
cephaliic
head
femoral
thigh
gluteal
buttock
lumbar
area of back btw ribs and hips, loin
occipital
posterior surface of head or base of skull
olecranal
posterior surface of elbow
popliteal
posterior of knee area
sacral
area btw hips
scapular
shoulder blade region
sural
the posterior surface of leg; calf
vertebral
area of spinal column
plantar
sole of foot region
Anterior/Ventral Cephalic
Frontal, orbital, nasal, buccal, oral, mental
Dorsal/ Post Cephalic
Occipital (head of back)
Dorsal/ Post Back
Scapular, Vertbral, Lumbar, scaral, and gluteal
Body Planes
body sectioned (cut) along a flat surface
Sagittal
Body plane that divides the body into right and left parts away from midsagittal
Midsagittal/ medial
body plane that sagittal plane that lies on midline
frontal/ coronal
body plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts
Transverse/ horizontal (cross section)
divides body into superior and inferior parts
Oblique section
cuts made diagonally
parasagitall
near
Anatomical Variability
Humans vary slightly in both external and internal anatomy
Over 90% of all anatomical structures match textbook descriptions: but,
nerves/ blood vessels may be somewhat out of order
small muscles may be missing
extreme anatomical variations are seldom even
Dorsal Cavity
protects the nervous system, and is divided into two subdivisions
Cranial Cavity
is within the skull and encases the brain (subdivision of dorsal)
Vertebral Cavity
runs within the vertebral column and encases the spinal cord (subdivision of dorsal)
Ventral Cavity
(more anterior) houses the internal organs (viscera), and is divided into two subdivisions; thoracic and abdominopelvic
Thoracic Cavity
subdivided into pleural cavities, mediastinum, and pericardial cavity
Pleural cavities
each houses a lung
mediastinum
contains the pericardial cavity, and surrounds the remaining thoracic organs
Pericardial Cavity
encloses the heart
Diaphragm
abdopelvic cavity is separated from the superior thoracic cavity
dome-shaped
Abdominapelvic Cavity
Abdominal pelvic and pelvic cavity
abdominal cavity
contains the stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
Pelvic cavity
lies within the pelvis and contains the bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum
Serosa
thin double layer membrane in ventral body cavity
Parietal serosa
lines internal body walls
Visceral Serosa
covers the internal organs
What separates serosae?
serous fluid
lubricates organs to prevent fiction so that fluid doesn’t build up
Pericarditist
percardiam is inflamed with fluid
Cardiac Tamponade
Friction that creates excess fluid sitting around heart = fluid pressure that needs to be drained
What organs are most vulnerable during an accident?
abdominopelvic organs
Oral and Digestive Cavities
mouth and cavities of the digestive organs
Nasal
located within and posterior to the nose
orbital
house the eyes
Middle ear
contain bones (ossicles) that transmit sound vibrations
synovial
joint cavities
Umbilical Region
Region that is center located where belly button is
epigrastric region
area above stomach
hypogastric region
below umbilical (pubic)
Right and Left Iliac/inguinal region
beside hypogastric
Right and Left Lumbar
side of umbilical
Right/Left Hypochondriac
side of epigastric
anatomy chem
basic chem
Mass
equivalent to amount of matter in the obj
Matter
Anything that has mass and takes up space
Solid
has definite shape and volume
liquid
has definite volume, changeable shape
gas
has changeable shape and volume
energy
no mass and doesn’t take up space
capacity to do work
Kinetic energy
energy in action
potential energy
energy of position; stored (inactive) energy
chemical energy
stored in the bonds of chemical substances
electrical energy
results from the movement of charged particles
mechanical energy
directly involved in moving matter
radiant or electromagnetic energy
energy traveling in waves
elements
unique substances that cannot be broken down by ordinary chemical means
112
Atoms
more or less identical blocks for each element
atomic symbol
one or two letter chemical shorthand for each element
Physical Properties of Elements
those detected with our senses
chemical properties
pertain to the way atoms interact with one another (bonding)
Major Elements
96.1%
C, H, N, O
Macronutirents
Lesser Elements
make up 3.9% of body
Ca,P, K, S, Na, Cl, Mg, I, and Fe
Trace Elements
makes up .01% of body
required in minute ants
found as part of enzymes
Co, Zn, Si
Nucleus of Atom
neutrons and protons
Neutrons
have no charge and a mass of one atomic mass unit
Protons
have a positive charge and a mass of 1 amu
Nucleus charge
neutral
electrons
orbit nucleus and have a negative charge and mass of 1/20,000 mass of proton (0 amu)
Planetary Model
electrons move around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits
orbital model
regions around the nucleus in which e-s are most likely to be found
Atomic Number
equal to the number of protons
tells number of electrons
How is atomic number written?
subscript to left of atomic symbol
Mass Number
equal to the mass of the protons and neutrons
one p+ or n0= 1 amu
Mass of e- is ignored
How is mass number written?
superscript left of symbol
Atomic Weight
average of the mass numbers of all isotopes
What is the basic rule for atomic weight = to?
mass # of the most abundant isotope
isotope
atoms with the same number of protons, but a different number of a neutrons; making structural variations in atoms
How are isotopes written?
By atomic symbol followed by mass number
C-14
Molecule
2 or more atoms held together by chemical bonds
Molecule of a element
When an element is bonded to the same element
H2
Molecule of a compound
when 2 or more different kinds of atoms bond
H20
compound
chemically pure (all molecules are identical)
Molecule displays?
characteristics of compound same f(x)
Atoms displays?
characteristics of element
How do atoms combine?
Chem bonds
Chemical Bonds
Made/broken in less than a trillionth of a second
Electron shells/energy levels
surround the nucleus of atom
How are bonds formed?
elections in the outermost energy level
how many electrons in first shell?
2
Outer shells?
8
Valence Shell
outermost energy level containing chemically active electrons
octet rule
except first shell that has two, the atoms interact to have 8 elections in their valence shell
Inert elements
have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons
Helium and Neon (inert gas used in welding)
Reactive Elements
don’t have their outermost energy level fully occupied by electrons
Ionic Bonds
Atoms are electrically neutral
gain or lose electrons
Ions
charged atoms resulting from the gain or loss of e-‘s
Anions
gained one or more electrons
negative charge
Cations
have lost one or more electrons
positively charged
How are ionic bonds formed?
atoms by the transfer of one or more electrons
what do iconic compound form?
crystals instead of molecules
NaCl (salt)
Ionic bonds are commonly formed how?
between atoms with one or two valence electrons and atoms with 7
Cations and anions are held by?
ionic bonds
dry state salts form?
crystals
Most ionic bonds form what structure ?
crystals
Covalent Bonds
formed by sharing of 2 or more electrons
electron sharing yields
molecules in covalent bonds
trachea, bronchi, aveoli
respiratory
Biochemistry
chemical compositions and run’s in living matter
organic compounds
contain carbon
covalent bond
large
inorganic compounds
don’t have carbon
water, salts, many acids and bases
Is water an organic or inorganic compound?
inorganic
Water’s High Heat Capacity
absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before changing temperature (ideal for the body)
h2o high heat of vaporization
changing from a liquid to a gas requires large amounts of heat (h bonds)
h2o polar solvent properties
disolves ionic substances, forms hydration layers around large charged molecules, and serves as the body’s major transport medium
(needed for biochem)
Reactivity (h2o)
is an vital part of hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis rxns
Cushioning
resilient cushion around certain body organs (cerebrospinal fluid)
Salts compound type?
inorganic compound
Salts contain?
Ionic compound containing cations other than h+ and anions other than OH-
What happens when salts dissolve in h2o?
they dissociate into their component ions
All ions, salts, acids and bases are what?
Electrolytes
electrolytes
they conduct electrical current in a solution
Salts in the body
Calcium carbonate, potassium chloride, NaCl
salt ionize in water allows?
bio
Fe (iron)
Hemoglobin
why are salts, acid and bases electrolytes?
they ionize and dissociates in water and conduct electricity
Acid
subtance that releases H+
sour and react with metals
What happens when acids dissolve in h2o?
release hydrogen and anions
Concentration of protons determines what?
acidity of a solution
acids releasing h+ = what?
proton donors
Bases taste and feel
slippery
bitter
bases are proton?
accepters
common inorganic bases
hydroxides
magnesium hydroxide (milk of magnesia)
sodium hydroxide (NaOH)
dissociates and dissolves in water
what are liberated in base when dissolved in water?
Hydroxy ions (OH-)
What happens when hydroxyl ions combine with H
water produced and acidity is reduced
Bases release and are?
OH- and are proton accepters
acidic solutions
have higher H+ concentrations and thus a lower pH
Alkaline solutions
have lower H+ concentrations and thus a higher pH
Neutral solutions
have equal h+ and OH- concentrations
bicarbonate ion
HCO3- is plentiful in blood
Ammonia
NH3 has one pair of unshared electrons that strongly attracts protons (protein breakdown)
if ammonia accepts electrons it becomes what?
Ammonium ion
pH scale
0-14
pH 7
equal H+ and OH-
Acidic pH
0-6.99
Basic pH
7.01-14
Neutral pH
7
Buffers
systems that resist abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids
how buffers work?
increasing H+ and binding H+
in buffers acids reflect what?
only free H+
Buffering controlled by?
kidneys and lungs
pH of blood
7.35-7.45
strong acid
dissociates completely and irreversibly in water (hydrochloric and sulfuric acid)
weak acid
dont dissociate fully
strong base
tba
weak bse
sodium bicarbonate
Carbonic acid-bicarbonate sys
Carbonic acid dissociates, reversibly bicarbonate ions and protons
Chem equalibrim btw carbonic acid and bicarb rests pH changes in blood
rise in pH
reverse low in pH
organic compounds
molecules unique to living systems contain carbon and hence are organic compounds
Carbon excpetions?
carbon dioxide/monoxide and barbides
4 major organic compounds
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleics Acid
Carbohyrates contain?
Hydrated carbons
2:1
C, H ,O
Carbohyrate major function
supply source of cellular food
monosaccarides (simple sugar)
dissaccharides
double sugars
Polysacs
polymers of simple sugar
Lipids contain
C,H, O, but he proportion of oxygen in lipids is less than in carbohydrates
lipids are insoluble in?
in water
Lipids are soluble in?
acohol
Neutral Fats
Triglycerides
Trigylyerides ratio
3:1
TG location
under skin
women swimmers
phospholipids
modified trigylcerides with 2 fatty acids groups and a phosphorus group
steroids
lipids
flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings (cholesterol
hormones vit D and bile salts
eicosanoids
lipid that derived from 20-c fatty acids (arachidonic acid) found in cell membranes
neutral fats location
found in subcatenous tissue and around organs
phospholipids
chief component of cell membranes
steroids are
cholesterol, bile salts, vitamin d, sex hormones, and adrenal cortical hormones
Fat soluble vitamins
vitamins A, E, K
eicosanoids
prostglandins, leuoktriens (hayfever and asthma hist), and thromboxanes
lipoproteins
transport fatty acids and cholesterol in bloodstream
Amino acids
building blocks of protein, containing an amino group and a carboxyl group
10-30% cell mass
amino acid structure
proteins
macromolecules composed of combo of 20 types of amino acids bound together with peptide bonds
Enzymes globular proteins
biological catalysts
Enzymes are what spec?
chemically
Enzyme name?
type of reaction they catalyze
Enzyme name ends in?
ase
Mechanisms of Enzyme Action
binds with substrate, product is formed at lower activation energy, product released
Nonpolar molecules
e-‘s shared equally between atoms
polar molecules
e-‘s shared unequally
Polarity determines
shape of molecule
electronegative
atoms with 6 or & valence shell electrons
electropositve
atoms with 1 or 2 valence shell e-‘s
Hydrogens bods
too weak to bind atoms together (attraction) common in dipoles such as water responsible for surface tension in water beads vital as intramolecular bonds
chem rxns
occur when chem bonds are formed, rearranged or broken
how are chem runs written?
symboic form using chem eqns
Chem eqns have?
# and type of reacting substances and products yield relative ants of reactants and products
combo rxns
synthesis reactions which always involve bond formation
A+B–> AB
Decomposition Rxn
molecules are broken down into smaller molecules
AB–>A + B
Exchange Rxn
bonds are both made and broken
AB+C–>AC+B
Oxidation-Reduction (redox) rxns reactants losing e-s
electron donors and oxidized
Redoc taking up e-s
electron accpetors and become reduced
exergonic rxns
reactions that release energy
endergonic rxns
reactions whose products contain more potential energy than did its reactants
all chem runs are?
theoretically reversible
How is chem equilibrium reached?
if neither a fwd nor reverse run is dominant
temp
chem rx proceed quicker at higher temp
particle size
the smaller the particle the faster the chem rxn
concentration
higher reacting particle concentrations yield faster rxns
catalysts
increase the rate of a run without being chemically changed
enzymes
biological catalysts
Robert Hooke
Created cell theory
Cell Theory Hooke
Cells Arise from other cells
Spontaneous Generation
Cell Theory 4 things
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life
Organismal Activity depends on individual and collective activity of cells
Biochem activités of cells are dictated by sub cellular structure (principle of complementarity)
Continuity of life has a cellular basis
Cells types amount
200
How many cells?
50-100 trillion
Cell Function
cells that connect move body store nutrient fight disease nerve reproduce
Plasma Membrane seperates
intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids
plasma membrane role
plays a dynamic role in cellular activity
Glycocalyx plasma membrane
a glycoprotein area abutting the cell that provides highly specific biological makers by which cells recognize one another
FLuid Mosaic Model size
Thin 7-10 nm (one millionth of a meter)
FMM appearance
double bilayer lipids with imbedded, dispersed, proteins
What does PM bilayer consist of?
phosphoplipids, cholesterol, and glycolipids
Glycolipids
lipids with bound carbohydrate
Phospholipids
have hydrophobic and hydrophilic bipoles
Function of Membrane Proteins
Transport Enzymatic Activity Receptors for signal transduction Intercellular adhesion cell-cell recognition attachment to cytoskeloton and extracellular matrix
Protein on Plamsa Memb surfaces
half of memb mass
What kinds of proteins in PM
integral
peripheral
Integral protein
some are transmembrane proteins (transport) forming channels and carrier
integral forms what
receptors (signal transduction)
Peripheal proteins
found on end of integral proteins
peripheral proteins forms
network of filament; some are enzymes
how does membranes differ?
kind and Amt of lipids they have
glycolipids location
found only in outer membrane surface
20% of membrane lipids are
cholesterol
Glycoproteins in glycocalex
act as adhesive
wavy contours and special membrane junctions
Tight Junction
impermeable junction that encircles the cell forms imperm junct
Tight junction examples
Eplithial cell of GI
demosome
anchoring junction scattered along the sides of cells (rivets) AND HAS PLAque and cadherins
Plaque and cadherins use
hold cells
demosome contributes
internal network of guy wires (skin and muscles). Intermediate filament
Gap Junction
a nexus
link the means of connection btw things linked in series
(excitiable tissues)
Passive Membrane Transport : Diffusion
interstiutual fuild, extracellular (hormones, AA, fats. and NT)
selective movement
movement in 2 directions
Passive and active transport
2 passive types of movement
diffusion cell to cell
filtation cap wall
polar covalent bond
a bond which electrons are shared unequally
A bond which electrons are lost or gained by atoms
ionic bond
bond which electrons are shared equally
nonpolar covalent bond
type of bond vital in tying different parts of the same molecule together into a three dimensional structure
H bond
first one or two letters of an elements name
Atomic symbol
of protons
atomic number
combined # of protons and neutrons
mass number of an element
True/F
isotopes differ from each other only in the number of electrons the atom contains
false
T/f
all organic compounds contain carbon
true
A chem rxn in which bonds are broken is usually associated with the ….
release of energy
Unstable atom
2, 8, 1
Active Transport
uses ATP to move solutes across a membrane
What does Active Transport require?
Carrier proteins like carrier mediated facilitated diffusion
Fac diff honors?
concentration gradient active transport doesn’t
AT works how?
against concentration gradient
Two types of AT
Symport sys
Antiport sys
Symport Sys
2 substances are moved across a membrane in the same direction
Antiport sys
2 substances are moved across a membrane in opposite direction
Passive Membrane Transport
Simple, Fac Diffusion, osmosis, and filtration
Simple, Fac Dif, and osmosis energy source
Kinetic energy
Filtration Energy source?
Hydostatic Pressure
example of simple diff
Movement of O2 through membrane
example of fac diff
Movement of glucose into cells
osmosis example
movement of water in/out of cells
filtration exp
formation of kidney filtrate
active transport of solutes example
movement of ions across membranes
exocytosis example
neurotransmitter secretiion
endocytosis example
white blood cell phagocytosis
fluid-phase endocytosis example
absorption by intestinal cells
receptormediatated endocytois exp
homone and choleserol uptake
endocytosis via caveoli
chlosterol regulation
intracellular trafficking of molecules is exp?
endo via coatomer vesicles
cytoplasm
Material between plasma membrane and the nucleus. Most cellular activities occurs. Contains:cytosol, organelles, inclusions
Cytosol
largely water with dissolved protein, salts, sugars, and other solutes
vicious, semi-transparent
cytoplasmic organelles
metabolic machinery of the cell
carry out special f(x)’s
Inclusions
chem substances such as glycosides, glycogen granules, pigment (may/may not be present)
Cytoplasmic Organelles
Specialized cellular compartments, membranous and nonmemb
Membranous
mitchondria peroxisomes lysosomes ER Golgi appartus
Mitochondria structure
double membrane with shelf-like cristae
What does mitochondria provide?
most of cell’s ATP via aerobic cellular respiration
Mitochondria has?
own DNA and RNA can reproduce themselves by fission
Mitochondria makes up?
5% of the proteins need to function
When energy demand increases in mito what occurs?
fission
Mito density?
dictated by energy demand
What are ribosomes?
Granules containing protein and rRNA (r=ribosomal_
Ribosomes are found at
site of proteins
Ribosomes have how many subunits?
2
Some ribosomes float freely in the ?
cytop
Some ribosomes are attached to?
membranes forming rough endoplasmic reticulum
Free ribosomes synthesize?
soluble proteins (cytosol)
Membrane-bound ribosomes synthesize
proteins to be incorporated into membranes or export
T/F Ribosomes can switch back?
True
ER structure
interconnected tubes and parallel membranes enclosing cistern and is continuos with nuclear membrane
Two varieties of ER?
Smooth
Rough
rough ER structure
external surface studded with ribosomes
What does rough ER do?
manufactures proteins secreted from cell, so it’s well developed in secretary cells, antibody-producing cells and liver cells
Forms the membrane factory
what is assembled in rough ER?
proteins assemebled here goes into the cisternea
What is the rough er responsible for?
synthesis of integral membrane protein and phospholipids for cell membranes
Signal Mech of Protein Syntheis
Signal sequence
cell recognition particle (SRP)
mRNA
ribosome complex is directed to rough ER by a signal-recognition particle (SRP)
SRP is released and what happens?
polypeptide grows into cisternAE
In SRP protein folds into?
a 3D conformation
in arp how is protein enclosed?
transport vesicle and moves two the Golgi Apparatus
Smooth ER structure
tubules arranged in a looping network
SMooth ER function
catalyzes the listed reactions in various organs of body
Liver example for Smooth ER function
lipid and cholesterol metabolism, breakdown of glycogen and along with the kidneys, detoxification of drugs
testes function by smooth er
synthesis of steroid-based hormones
Smooth er intestinal cells
absoprtion, synthesis,and transport of fats
SMooth er skeletal and cardiac muscle (sacroplasmic reticulum)
storage and release of calcium
Golgi Apparatus Structure
stack and flattened membranous sacs
GA functions in?
modification, concentration, and packaging of proteins
Transport vessels from Er do what?
fuse with the convex cis face of the GA
Proteins pass through GA to?
Trans face
Secretory vesicles leave?
trans face of the Golgi stack and move to designated parts of the cell, leaving by exocytosis
Lysosomes structure
spherical membranous bags containing digestive enzymes
Lysosomes digest?
ingested bacteria, viruses, and toxins
Lysosomes degrade?
nonfunctional organelles
Lysosomes breakdown?
glycogen and release thyroid hormone
nonuseful tissues (webs)
bone to release Ca2+
Uterine lining during menustration
Where are secretory lysosomes found?
white blood cells
immune cells
melanocytes
Lysosome Memb
02, injured, Vitamin A
Autolysis?
Microfilaments structure
dynamic strands of the protein actin
Where are Microfilaments attached to?
cytoplasmic side of plasma membrane
CAMs and function to endocytosis and exocytosis
Microfilament function
braces and strengthens cell surface
Intermediate Filaments Characteristics
Tough
insoluble protein fibers with high tensile strength
Intermedi Filament resist
pulling forces on the cell and help form demsomes
Peroxisomes structure
membranous sacs containing oxidases and catalases
Peroxisomes cells
kidney and liver cells
Peroxisomes function
detoxify harmful/toxic subtances
Peroxisomes Neutralize
dangerous free radicals
Free Radicals
highly reactive chemicals with unpaired e-‘s
2 example of fr
oxidases converts FR to hydrogen peroxide; hydrogen peroxide is converted to water (catalases)
What is cytoskeloton?
the skeleton of the cell
dynamic elaborate series of rods running through the cytosol
What does cytoskel consist of?
microtubules
microfilaments
intermediate filaments
Microtubules
dynamic
hollow tubes made of the spherical protein tubulin
Microtubules dtermine?
overall shape o the cell and distribution of organelles
Motor molecules
Protein complexes that function in motility
What powers motor molecules?
ATP
Motor molecules attach to
receptors on organelles
micro tubes
are attached at one end near the nucleus to the region called the centrosome
Centrioles look
small barrel-shaped organelles located in the centrosome near the nucleus
pinwheel array of 9 triplets of microtubules
centrioles organize
mitotic spindle during mitosis
centrioles form
bases of cilia and flagella
CilliA
whiplike motile cellular extensions on exposed surfaces of certain cells
move subtances in one direction across cell surface
Cillia line the ?
respiratory tract
When a cell forms cilia the centrioles…?
multiply and line up under the cell membrane
Microtubes sprout from each centriole forms what/
cillary projection
When cillary projection grow long, they are called?
flagella
cillia versus flaggella
across cell versus propulsion
Nucleus is the ?
control center
Nucleus contains?
nuclear envelope
nucleoli
chromatin
distinct compartments rich in specific protein sets
nucleus is gene?
-containing ctrl ctr of cell
nucleus has?
genetic library with blueprints for nearly all cellular proteins
nucleus dictates
kinds and amts of proteins to be synthesized
multinucleated?
muscle and bone destruction cells
anucleated?
rbc
no nucleus
no mRNA=no protein synthesis
largest orgnelle
nuclues
nucleus’ shape
dictated by shape of cell
3 regions of nucleus
envelope
nucleoli
chromatin
nuclear envelope
selectively permeable double membrane barrier has pores
nuclear membrane encloses
jellylike cytoplasm; has essential solutes
outer nuclear envel membrane
continuous with rough ER and is studded with ribosome
inner membrane
lined with nuclear lamina that maintains the shape of the nucleus
pore complex regulates
transport of large molecules into and out of nucleus
Nucleoli
dark-staining spherical bodies within the nucls, not membrane bound
amt of nucleoli/nucleus?
1 or 2
Nucleoli has
large growing cells
DNA that issue genetic info for synthesizing RNA mRNA
When RNA are synthesized they combine with proteins to form?
two types of ribosomal subunits
Proteins made by ribosomes in the cytoplasm are imported?
into the nucleus
nucleoli site
of ribosome productions
chromatin
threadlike strands of dan 30%
60% globular histones proteins
chromatin is arranged how?
fundamental units
nucleosome
fundamental units of chromatin
chromatin consists of
8 histones proteins connected to DNA
When cell divides ..?a
chromatin forms condensed bar like bodies of chromosomes
condense body
prevent tangling
breakage of chromatin
Cell Life Cycle
Series of changes cells undergoes from formation to reproduction involving two major periods: interphase and cell division (mitotic)
Interphase
growing
normal activities
growth or metabolic
Cell division (mitotic)
when cell divides into daughter cells
INTERPHASE PARTS
Growth G1, synthesis s, growth g2
Miotic Phase
Mitosis and cytokinesis
g1 gap one
metabolic activity and vigorous growth
last for minutes/ years, virtually no cell division
Twds end centrioles start to replicate for cell division
synthetic
DNA replication that ensures that cell division will result in 2 cells with identical copies of genetic material without proper S phase there can be no correct mitotic phase
G2 gap 2
brief prep for division enzymes and proetiens needed for division are synthesized and move to proper psotion
at end of this phase centriole replication is done
