International Handbook of TA Flashcards
Two elements to a threat:
1) Perceived possibility of harm (potential danger)
2) A statement conveying an intention to cause harm (menacing utterance)
Three general elements to the management process:
1) Logistical - resources
2) Strategic - goals/priorities
3) Tactical - what ops are needed to carry out
Three principles of threat assessment and management
1) Usually the result of a discernable process
2) Usually an interaction among the attacker, past events, current situation, and target
3) Key is identifying attack-related behaviors
Systems theory
1) Equifinality - multiple factors leading to same outcome
2) Multifinality - One factor having multiple outcomes
Kinney’s model of workplace violence (Think Kinney needs TP for his PEA)
1) Traumatic experience
2) Perceptions that problems are unsolvable
3) Projection of all responsibility onto the situation
4) Egocentric frame of reference
5) Assumption that violence is the only way
White and Meloy’s five critical items to workplace violence
1) Motives for violence
2) HI/fantasies/fixation
3) Violent intentions/expressed threats
3) Weapons skill and access
4) Preattack planning and preparation
McKenzie’s Five risk factors of stalking
1) SI
2) HI
3) Psychosis
4) last resort
5) Psychopathy
Hoffman and Roshdi’s four-stage pathway to school shooting
1) Ongoing crisis
2) Emerging pattern of warning behavior
3) Inner world of the actors
4) Outside perspective showing how the perpetrator acts
O’Toole had how many levels of risk for school shootings based on which four elements?
Three levels of risk base on:
Specific, direct, detailed, plausibility
Cornell added to O’Toole’s levels of risk by adding which two elements?
1) Transient
2) Substantive
Motivational typologies of threats:
1) Schemer
2) Shocker
3) Signaler
4) Shielder
5) Screamer
This threatener’s intent is instrumental and to get others to comply to further own interest
Schemer
This type of threatener’s intent is to bring attention to himself via fear/anxiety by producing reactions in the target
Shocker
This type of threatener’s intent is promise future harm to target for perceived/actual harm caused and are committed to act violently
Signaler
This type of threatener’s intent is to ward off potential attacks by others by engaging in self-protection
Shielder
This type of threatener’s intent is catharsis of emotion than intent to act - they’re rarely committed but may be based on general anger
Screamer
Stalking victims who have been threatened have been found ____ times more likely to be assaulted
Three times more likely
The vast majority of threats in stalking situations are made by two types of stalkers:
1) Disgruntled former sexual partners
2) Vengeful stalkers
When interviewing a source it’s best to have a:
topic based convo rather than question-answer approach
In memory research .. Emotional experiences lead to:
better memory of central details but not necessarily more accuracy
When something isn’t true but presented as truth vs when someone resists or withholds informaiton
active vs passive deception
Strategic Use of Evidence technique of source interviewing
1) Gain cooperation
2) Allow them to provide info without knowing what info the interviewer holds
3) Slowly, relevant info is released in an unassuming way
4) When interviewer notices subject is lying, not immediately confronted
5) Disclosure strategies are used to challenge the narrative
Sharff Technique of source interviewing
- Collecting info while interviewee is unaware of their contributions to the investigator
- Subtly inviting subject to confirm/disconfirm assertions
- Pretend to have lots of info and what’s being discussed isn’t anything new
- Premise is on misperception by subject of what info the interviewer holds
PEACE model of source interviewing
P - Plan and prepare
E - Engage and explain
A - Personal Account
C - Closure
E - Evaluation
Personal injury law is aka
Tort Law
Tort feasor is aka
The defendant
Core elements of tort law
1) There was an existence of duty of care
2) Negligence in the performance of that duty or failure to act when required
3) Causal relationship between negligence and injury
- need proximate causation and damages
- damages must be proved
What is foreseeability in tort law?
When an ordinary person would or should know that harm could result from their negligence
Why has legal action against TA consultants failed when violence does end up occuring?
Absence of duty to the injured third party by the consultants. Protection is lost when there’s an advisory role.
Under the ADA, are substance use or personality disorders considered disabilities?
Yes.
Under the ADA what is a FFDE and what is it considered?
Fitness for duty evaluation and is considered a medical evaluation.
Four variations of the insanity defense:
1) M’Nuaghten test - as a result of SMI not capable of knowing nature and quality of actions were legally or morally wrong
2) Durham Rule - only used in new Hampshire
3) ALI Model Penal Code standard - defendant who lacks substantial capacity to appreciate the criminality of conduct or conform the conduct to the requirements of law
4) 18 USC Section 17 - standard in federal cases - unable to appreciate the nature and quality or wrongfulness of the actions bc of mental disease or defect
Which case set the precedent that a defendant is held in treatment until no longer mentally ill or dangerous
Jones v US
In stalking, a term to describe when one individual handles the case from beginning through post-sentencing
vertical prosecution
Precedent is established by
Appellate courts
An open source and ongoing tally that includes 115 mass shootings from 1982-2019
Mother Jones
Four types of workplace violence recognized by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health
1) Criminal intent - aka Type 1
2) Customer/client - aka Type 2
3) Worker on worker - aka Type 3
4) Personal relationship - aka Type 4
Assuming negative consequences for misconduct are effective risk mgmt strategies
Disciplinary drift
Shea described interview techniques in assessing suicide risk that if modified can be adapted to assess violence risk
1) Shame attenuation - do you find your boss is unfairly getting on your case?
2) Normalization - Many people tell me how angry they are with the unfairness. What’s it like for you?
3) Denial of the specific - Asking questions in a series about a topic vs general question
4) Symptom amplification - Counteracts tendencies to downplay the frequency or degree of concerning behaviors.
Increasing the number of people an individual of concern is fixated on or threatening
Target dispersion
A study by Cornell and colleagues (2018) found what about threats made by students among elementary, middle, and high school?
Those in 4th and 5th grade were less likely to be considered serious compared to middle and high school. Threats by older students more likely to be classified as serious and more likely to be attempted.
The Salem-Keizer Student Threat Assessment System (STAS) is a process that beings with _____ and is followed by _______. This uses how many teams and for what?
Begins with identifying students where there is a risk for aggression, followed by an assessment of the seriousness of the risk. Two teams: one for less serious threats and one in the community for more serious threats.
A Canadian school threat assessment model…the VTRA
Violence Threat Risk Assessment: involve a stage 1 intervention for immediate implementation and a stage 2 for long-term services.
The German Networks Against School Shootings program focuses school threat assessment on:
psychosocial crises
What’s the CSTAG school threat assessment model? Who comprises the team and how what are the steps?
Comprehensive School Threat Assessment Guidelines. Relies on school-based multidisciplinary teams to distinguish transient from substantive threats.
Step 1 - Gather info and determine if it is a threat
Step 2 - Consider credibility/seriousness
Step 3 - Teams respond to substantive threats which require protective action. If threat exceeds a fight, and includes a threat to kill, use a weapon, steps 4 and 5 are activated.
Step 4 - Three additional actions
(a) screened for MH services (b) law enf invest (c) integrate findings from a & b
Step 5 - Implement and monitor safety plan from step 4
The CSTAG has been recognized as
evidence based practice
Research shows that the optimal size of multidisciplinary teams in the range of ___ to ___ members. Fewer than ___ and more than ___ limit knowledge and compromise productivity, respectively.
5 to 9
Fewer than 5…more than 9
The STEP model to identifying potential indicators of concern
S - Subject’s behaviors, traits, and characteristics
T - Target’s vulnerabilities
E - Environment that facilitates, permits, or doesn’t discourage violence
P - Precipitating events
If the STEP process highlights potential for team involvement, utilize:
1) Subject based strategies
2) Target based strategies
Third Restatement of Torts, Sections 40-41
40 - Duties based on a special relationship with the injured person
41 - Duties based on a special relationship with the subject posing the risk
Third Restatement of Torts, Sections 42-43
42 & 43 - Duties based on undertakings - a person who assumes responsibility to provide services to another (such as to implement a case mgmt strategy) has a duty to provide reasonable care if (a) the failure to exercise such care increases the risk of physical harm beyond that which existed prior OR (b) the person to whom the services are rendered relies on the team member exercising reasonable care in the undertaking…these duties are aka “gratuitous undertakings”
In which court case did the court hold that postsecondary schools have a duty to keep students safe from foreseeable criminal assaults while they’re engaged as part of the school’s curriculum/services
Rosen v Regents of the Univ of California
In which court case did the supreme court hold that a univ has a special relationship with a student and corresponding duty to take reasonable measures to prevent his or her suicide
Dzung Duy Nguyen v Massachusetts’s Institute of Technology
Public figure stalkers are more likely to target ____ over ____
politicians over corporate figures
The attacks by public figure stalkers are more often ___ & ___ than ___ & ___
direct and interpersonal than indirect and from a distance
Letter writers who threatened politicians are _____ likely to approach the politican
less likely
In a study by Meloy and Amman, politicians were more likely attacked during ____ hours, usually at the ____, rather than at _____and in ____ areas
Daytime hours, at the workplace rather than at public events and in open areas.
In a study by Meloy and Amman, politicians were more likely attacked during ____ hours, usually at the ____, rather than at _____and in ____ areas
Daytime hours, at the workplace rather than at public events and in open areas.
Compared to other groups of public figures, politicians have an ____ risk of being attacked.
Increased risk
Leets, de Becker, and Giles studied letters from stalkers to celebrities and found that the _____ of expectations was most significant in discerning those who:
reasonableness….those who didn’t pursue from those who did
Coined by Meloy, this means when the stalker believes a debt is owed to them by the celebrity equal to the amount and time the stalker has invested
entitled reciprocity
The average stalking period of celebrities is around ______ months,
25-26 months
Two significant predictors of a physical approach by a stalker towards a celebrity
1) escalation - nine fold increase in likelihood to approach
2) police intervention - approaches decreased by half
Three red flags that are useful indictors of dangerous celebrity stalkers:
1) obsession with celebrity - others noticed
2) entitled reciprocity
3) Anger about some personal behavior of the celebrity that served as a trigger
Regarding stalking of royalty figures, James studied the British royal family and found that over ___ % suffered from a serious mental illness. Different forms of behavior were associated with different symptom patterns and separated into ___ motivational groups.
over 80% (84 to be exact)….8 different motivational groups
Delusions of ________ are a common motive for contact and approach behavior of stalkers of royalty.
delusions of royal identity
In royalty stalking, fixation on a _____ is more concerning than fixation on a ____
fixation on a cause than fixation on a person
Stalkers of corporate figures can be divided into 4 subgroups, as stated by Hoffmann and Sheridan. Those 4 groups are: think..stalking the corporate figure so I can get My EPR
1) Motivation
2) Endurance
3) Psychopathology
4) Relationship
Rate of violence towards corporate figures is lower than for ___ or ____ but because of _____ corporate figures may be viewed as celebrities, as they try to be recognized as leaders.
politicians and celebrities. because of social media
Fairly rapid movement from one individual target to another with threats/communications of concern..no studies yet to indicate this suggests accelerated risk for violence
Sequential dispersion
A fixation on one individual target but then bringing in others as an audience…this does suggest accelerated risk for targeted violence
Audience dispersion
Generalizing from the individual to a group within which the target belongs
Target dispersion
Coined by Pies, this is a chronically emotional state that does not rise to the threshold of a diagnosable mental disorder but may motivate targeted violence
Persistent emotional disturbance
Evaluators should consider four basic kinds of risk management strategies in IPV cases:
1) Monitoring
2) Treatment
3) Supervision
4) Victim safety planning
Evaluators should consider three domains in IPV cases:
1) Acute conflict
2) Capacity for serious violence
3) Severe disinhibition
About ___ % of stalkers have previously had an intimate relationship with the victim
50%
Recent comparative analysis of stalker typologies suggest that those based on ____ and ____ are likely to be most helpful when considering relevance of behavioral and situational risk factors
Stalker’s prior relationship to the victim and stalker’s apparent motivation
Mullen and colleagues proposed three different domains in stalking-related risk that should be considered:
1) The risk of continued stalking (persistence)
2) The risk of physical or sexual violence
3) The risk of future stalking (recurrence)
Stalkers who engage in brief pursuits tend to be ____ and ____ and make _____ communications
single and young…fewer communications
Stalkers who are highly persistent are more likely to be what type of stalker?
Intimacy seeking
Stalkers who engage in moderately long pursuits (12+ weeks) tend to be ____ and _____ and seek _____
single and older…seek intimacy
Making false reports of critical incidents to police with intention of target being harassed by attending personnel
swatting
Publication and circulation of private or personal info considered compromising or embarrasing
doxing
When assessing anonymous threatening communications, _____ staging is similar to crime scene staging. The POC is manipulating to direct the investigation away from its logical direction
linguistic staging
When assessing anonymous threatening communications, how combined levels of ______ and ______ should draw the attention
energy and risk-taking
Focusing on the structure and careful examination of an author’s word choices to discern motivations and sources behind the disclosure
statement analysis
JACA, as it relates to linguistic analysis of anonymous threatening communication, can be remembered as LACE JIC, which detects the threatener’s resolution to violence.
L - Lack of resiliency
A - Ability
C- Contempt
E - Energy and Effort
J - Justification
I - Inevitability
C - Consequences
Three psychiatric disorders show a higher prevalence among lone actors”
1) Schizophrenia
2) Delusional disorder
3) Autism Spectrum
In lone actors, leakage of which three elements is common:
1) beliefs
2) attitudes
3) intent
Radicalization of lone actors occurs both:
online and offline
Lone actors engage in a process that allows them to choose the target with relatively fewest risks, which weapon they’d use in which location, or which targets have least level of security.
cost benefit analysis
The timeframe between deciding to conduct an attack and actually doing it varies between
3 months to more than 2 years
Behaving in an intentionally disruptive, destructive, or deceptive manner on the internet for no apparent reason
trolling
Of the 8 warning behaviors, which three have been observed the most in social media?
1) Fixation
2) Identification
3) Leakage
Social network analysis is relevant to threat assessment in the virtual space, as it looks into which four elements?…think: they spread the message as if they’re on NBC(C)
1) Network density - the proportion of relationships that actually exists in the network
2) Betweenness centrality - more influence if the person is an intermediary between people and messages
3) Clustering and community detection algorithms - collection of nodes strongly connected to each other
4) Closeness centrality - the more links people have, the more the message spreads
New Jersey vs TLO
Need to maintain order outweighs the privacy of students
Two methods for analzying social network communications
1) word frequency analysis
2) named entity recognition
After filtering and analyzing data regarding networks, there are additional ways to inspect text at the content level.
1) sentiment - words within a text are assigned to a positive or negative attitude.
2) emotions - ancodi
Two methods for analzying social network lexicon quantitatively
1) linguistic inquiry
2) word count
When assessing adolescents, special attention should be paid to their _______ or their perception of their ______
social standing…..social standing
O’Toole highlighted six general areas to consider in a threat assessment
1) Social life
2) Work
3) Family life
4) personal life
5) private life
6) secret life
O’Toole highlighted 4 general reasons problematic behaviors are missed
1) Normalizing - finding a “normal” explanation for observation
2) Rationalizing - excusing it, explaining it away
3) Ignoring
4) Icon intimidation/influence
case law: Right to remain silent
Miranda v Arizona
Case law: expands the right of the govt to search and surveil without court order, and now applies to certain domestic terrorism situations
US Patriot Act
Case law: established the test about what is free speech on school campuses
Tinker v Des Moines Independent Community School District
Case Law: what did Bethel School District v Fraser and Hazlewood School District v Kuhlmeier oppose?
The decision in Tinker v Des Moines, stating that lewd speech at a school assembly is not constitutionally protectied
Case law: how are Arnett v kennedy and Garcetti v Ceballos related to free speech ?
1) Arnett = authorized removal/suspension of employee if the reason is based on employee’s speech which affects the employing agency
2) Garcetti = If employee did not speak as a citizen on a matter of public concern, then no first amendment protection
Case Law: Duty to warn
Tarasoff v regents of the Univ of California
Under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), students with disabilities may be removed from schools who carry a weapon, to an interim placement for …..
up to 45 days
IDEA does not permit changes in student’s ______, if the behavior was a _______
placement….manifestation of a disability
Through FERPA, can schools share student’s information if student is a dependent for tax purposes?
Yes
Through FERPA, can schools share student’s information if the student has violated policy regarding alcohol or controlled substance?
Yes
Case Law: Offers an objective standard for evaluating if a statement is a true threat, thus making it unprotected by the first amendment
US v Orozco-Santillan
Credible threats from patients or ________ are covered under duty to warn, but not beyond…
family members…….family members
Communicated threats can be classified into three categories:
1) Direct
2) Veiled
3) Conditional
Jeff Cooper’s structure for situational awareness, originally for marines, and comprised of four conditions:
1) White - unprepared
2) Yellow - prepared and alert - good
3) Orange - Alert to probable danger - ready
4) Red - Acton mode - focused on emergency
Another situational awareness model by Statfor, TEDD
T - Time
E - Environment
D - Distance
D - Demeanor
The design of a comprehensive threat management plan is based on establishing controls in five domains:
1) Organizational mgmt
2) Psychological mgmt
3) Social mgmt
4) Physical mgmt
5) Legal mgmt
Protective investigations emerged to prevent assassinations in the ____
Warren Commission Report
By applying a _______ model, threat assessors can develop, evaluate, and implement primary, secondary, and tertiary activities to prevent violence acts among adolescents
disease prevention model
Unhurried decision-making and opportunity for consultation is known as _____ and likely matures by age 16
Cold cognition
Pressured emotional arousal, possible social coercion likely matures in early 20s, is known as
Hot cognition
Leakage appears prevalent in which two settings?
School and workplace
What is DRA? Describe
Detect, Report, Act
1) D - processes to identify people on pathway to violence
2) R - processes to help those who detect to communicate what’s been observed
3) A - once reported, trained personnel to fully assess appropriately
What is DRA? Describe
Detect, Report, Act
1) D - processes to identify people on pathway to violence
2) R - processes to help those who detect to communicate what’s been observed
3) A - once reported, trained personnel to fully assess appropriately
Kanin looked at 45 cases of false rape allegations and found that they tend to serve three functions for the complainant:
Later two more motivations were added
1) to create an alibi
2) seek revenge
3) obtain sympathy and attention
4) Mental health issues didn’t allow them to discern reality
5) engage in consensual sex but out of guilt/remorse, claimed sexual assault
The alibi function in false rape allegations is subdivided into two groups:
1) young girls who want to avoid consequences of disobeying rules
2) older teens/adult women who want to cover up consensual activity
Philpot and colleagues examined CCTV footage in three countries and found that the number of bystanders present in the conflict situation…
increased the likelihood of intervention, with an incremental bump for each bystander on scene
_____ loners are the main threat to public figures in western countries
fixated loners
Typology researchers have identified three or four subtypes of male intimate partner perpetrators, two of which pose an elevated risk for severe violence
1) Dysphoric/borderline
2) Violent/antisocial
the recognition that both the actions and inactions of the threat assessor can result in increase risk…this process is known as and the effects are known as
intervention synergy….iatrogenic effects
Risk for re-offense is highest _____ months or so following an arrest for IPV
6 months
Threat mgmt in IPV cases is best informed by the…
risk, needs, responsivity model
Smith’s research shows that initial communication, whether as a standalone or as the first in a succession of communications,, can be an accurate predictor of action/nonaction….even when…
there is no explicit threat or even angry language
as actors become more committed to action, their conceptual complexity
drops
WAVR-21
Indicators of targeted violence and general risk factors. First 5 items are red flag indicators. Remaining 16 are related to mental health, situational stressors, and history of violent behavior..then classify at low, moderate or high
CAG
Cawood assessment and response intervention grid…to assess risk for physical violence in organizational settings and provides guidance for initial response and intervention …85 dichotomous items
One differene bteween WAVR and CAG
WAVR allows assessing if behaviors have RECENTLY escalated and CAG assesses if behaviors have changed over time
In workplace settings, these 2 factors are more relevant to violence risk than what other 2 factors
job-related/personally motivated grievances and behaviors of concern rather than personal dispositions or group membership
The totality of digital artifacts that allows the assessor to piece together an offender’s behavioral picture, and which warrants its own pathway
Cyber pathway to intended violence (CPIV)
Elements of the CPIV
1) Digital behaviors
2) Temporal contexts
3) Origin story
4) Exploratory thought
5) Noticeability versus surreptitiousness
6) Intra-attack behaviors
7) Post-attack behaviors
The temporal contexts of the CPIV can be trifurcated, one of which can be further trifurcated.
1) Pre-offense - origination, development, refinement
2) Offense
3) Post-offense
Preattack behaviors on the CPIV
1) Motivation
2) Ideation
3) Intention
4) Conceptualization
5) Research and planning
6) Preparation
7) Reconnaissance, probing, and breach
A person’s behavior is determined by the person’s intention to perform the behavior and that this intention is a function of certain core beliefs
Ajzen’s theory of planned behavior
A combined application of numerous forensic disciplines to uncover offender thoughts and actions in digital behavior artifacts
Digital Behavioral Criminalistics
Digital evidence or “bread crumbs” or an offender’s behaviors left in publicly accessible locations
Digital behavioral artifacts
In radicalization, push factors are within the _____ and pull factors within the ______
push are within the individual and pull are within the social and political context
Those who have speculated about typologies of terrorism have identified three main types:
1) Noble cause
2) Criminality
3) Mental disorder
The distal characteristics are used to assess the risk of extremists or another term used, the.. .
violent true believer
In the international handbook, Caputo argues that the critical pathway to insider threat does not ____ insider threats
does not predict
The critical pathway to insider risk fails to identify behaviors that span across known insiders, which would make such behaviors…
characteristics
the critical pathway to insider risk does not offer ____, to distinguish good from bad insiders
indicators
Caputo proposes a framework of 4 components to address insider threat:
1) Role
2) Character
3) Stressors
4) Concerning behaviors
5 concerning behaviors that have been consistently shown across data sets of insider threat
1) Rule-breaking
2) Grievance collector
3) Rigid fairness
4) Conflict
5) Flight risk
The 5 conditions necessary to making a malicious insider:
1) Opportunity
2) Idea of the behavior is conceivable
3) Motive
4) Ability to override any inhibitions of conscience
5) Lack of preventative mechanisms
In insider threat, what is the MICE model of motivation
Motivation is a necessary condition to becoming an insider threat, and it includes money, ideology, coercion/compromise, and ego
The 5 conditions necessary for insider risk include the Fraud Triangle, coined by Donald Cressey, which is made up of what three elements
1) Opportunity
2) Rationalization
3) Motivation
Name the Act that mandates expulsion of students who bring a gun to school and report all violations to local law enforcement
Federal Gun Free Schools Act
