Instrument Study Flashcards
How often must the altimeter system be tested and inspected?
Every 24 calendar months
What two fundamental concepts apply to gyroscopes?
- Rigidity in space
- Precession
Explain “rigidity in space” as it pertains to gyroscopes
This is the concept that a spinning wheel resists movement when mounted to gimbals, allowing the gimbals’ base to tilt, twist or otherwise move around the gyro.
Explain precession as it pertains to gyros.
When an outside for tries to tilt a spinning gyro, the gyro responds as if the force had been applied at a point 90deg further/later around in the direction of rotation.
How does precession affect certain flight instruments?
Unwanted precession is caused by friction in the gimbals and bearings of the instruments, causing a slow drifting in the heading indicator and occasional small errors in the attitude indicator
What errors do you find on attitude indicators?
- During coordinated turns, the gyro precesses toward the inside of the turn.
- When rolling out of a steep 180deg turn, the aircraft on the AI will show a slight climb and turn in the opposite direction. (This action is cancelled out after a 360deg turn)
- AI may indicate climb during acceleration and indicate a descent during deceleration
- When rolling out of a 180deg skidding turn, the AI shows a turn in the direction opposite of the skid
Standard Rate Turn Formula
Angle of Bank = (KTAS/10) + 5
i.e.
AoB = (60/10) + 5
9 = 6 + 5
Slipping Turn
Because of insufficient rudder pressure, the aircraft does not turn fast enough for it’s bank angle. The horizontal component of lift exceeds the centrifugal force which opposes the turn. As a result the inclinometer falls to the inside of the turn. (Think of a forward slip).
Skidding Turn
Excessive rudder pressure forces the aircraft to turn faster than normal for the bank angle. The horizontal component of lift is insufficient to overcome the centrifugal force. The inclinometer swings to the outside of the turn. (Think of cars drifting)
Magnetic Variation
The angular difference between true north and magnetic north.
Magnetic Deviation
Error due to magnetic interference with metal components in the aircraft.
Magnetic Dip
Tendency for magnetic compass to tilt downward. Most prominent at north pole.
Magnetic Compass Acceleration Error
ANDS
Magnetic Compass Turning Error
UNOS
CAS
Calibrated Air Speed
IAS corrected for installation and instrument errors.
EAS
Equivalent Airspeed
CAS corrected for adiabatic compressible flow at a particular altitude
TAS
True Airspeed
Actual speed aircraft moves through undisturbed air.
As density altitude increases, TAS increases for a given CAS or for a given amount of power. As the air becomes less dense (aka less effective/less drag) TAS increases
Types of altitude
- Indicated
- Calibrated
- Pressure
- Density
- True
- Absolute
Indicated Altitude
Altitude read from altimeter
Calibrated Altitude
Indicated altitude, corrected for instrument error
Pressure Altitude
Is displayed when altimeter set to 29.92”Hg. Vertical distance above Standard Datum Plane
SDP
Standard Datum Plane
Theoretical plane where atmospheric pressure = 29.92”Hg
Density Altitude
Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard temperature
True Altitude
Actual height above MSL.
Absolute Altitude
The actual height above earths surface
The VSI Displays _____.
- Rate Information
- Trend Information
Pitot Tube Blockage Error
If ram inlet ONLY is blocked:
- Airspeed will drop to 0 as pressure in line vents through drain hole.
If ram and drain hole blocked:
- ASI will react as altimeter if static port remains clear.
Static Port Blockage Affects on ASI
ASI - will react, but will not be correct. When above the altitude where it became blocked, ASI will read lower than it should. When below the altitude where it became blocked, ASI will read higher than it should. The greater the distance the greater the error.
Static Port Blockage Affect on Altimeter and VSI
Both will freeze
Fundamental Skills of Instrument Flying
- Cross-Check
- Interpretation
- Aircraft Control
Two Methods for Attitude Instrument Flying
- Control and Performance
- Primary/Support Concept
Control and Performance Concept
Accurately establish a specific attitude and power setting using the control instruments. Performance instruments provide feedback to confirm and support the control instruments
Primary/Support Concept
Divides panel into pitch, bank, power instruments. For a given maneuver, instruments providing the most essential information are primary while instruments helping maintain primary are supporting instruments.
CDI
Course Deviation Indicator
HSI
Horizontal Situation Indicator
OBS
Omni Bearing Selector
VOR Time and Distance Calculation
Distance = (Time to Station (Mins) X TAS)/Degrees of Bearing Change
i.e.
D = (6mins X 60ktas) / 10deg
D = 360/10 = 36nm
VOR Isosceles Triangle Time Calculation
- Turn 10deg off course
- Turn Course Selector 10deg in OPPOSITE direction
- Time to station is same as time it takes for your CDI to center (assuming no wind)
i.e. Tracking: 90deg TO VOR Set CDI to: 80deg Turn to: 110deg Start time and wait for CDI to center.
SSV
Standard Service Volume (Radius and height) of a VOR
TVOR
Terminal VOR - Short range facility used in terminal areas for instrument approaches
TVOR SSV
25NM Radius @ 1000’ to 12,000’
LVOR
Low VOR used for nav on most airways, and can also function as approach facilities when on or near an airport
LVOR SSV
40nm Radius @ 1,000’ to 18,000’
HVOR
High VOR - Used for nav on most airways, and can also function as approach facilities when on or near an airport.
HVOR SSV
1,000’ to 14,500’: 40nm Radius
14,500’ to 18,000’: 100nm Radius
18,000’ to 45,000’: 130nm Radius
45,000’ to 60,000’: 100nm Radius
Types of VOR Checks
- VOT
- VOR Checkpoints (ground and airborne
- Dual VOR
VOT
VOR Test Facility
- Transmits on 360deg
- +/-4 degrees
- If using RMI, bearing pointer should be 180deg +/-4
VOR Ground Checkpoint
- Taxi to specific point on the airport that is designated in the VOR Receiver Check section of the A/FD.
- Center CDI
- Compare VOR course to published radial for that checkpoint (A/FD)
- +/-4 degress
VOR Airborne Checkpoint
Listed in A/FD
- Usually located over easily identifiable terrain or prominent ground features.
Can also be performed on centerline of an airway.
- Locate prominent terrain feature under centerline of airway, preferable 20nm or more from VOR station.
- Center CDI when over point and note what course is selected.
- +/- 6 degrees permissible
Dual VOR Check
Set two separate VORs to same facility and note indications of each.
+/-4 degrees permissible
DME accuracy
- Accurate within 1/2 mile or 3%, whichever is greater.
- DME considered accurate when you are at least 1nm from the station for every 1,000’ above the site elevation.
DME Arc
- Used for transitioning from enroute to approach course
- About 1/2 mile from reaching the arc, turn 90 degrees from current course
- Fly a heading so RMI is 5 to 10 degrees ahead
of wingtip - Continue flying that heading until RMI is 5 to 10 degrees behind wing tip.
- Turn inside the arc so that RMI is once again 5 to 10 degrees ahead of wingtip.
- Continue process until meeting Approach Course
- If using conventional VOR, set OBS to a radial 20degrees ahead of present position.
- Then turn and maintain a heading 100degrees from the radial you just crossed.
- Once CDI centers, or you reach the arc, repeat the process to fly another segment.
What does Area Navigation (RNAV) compute
- Aircraft position
- Actual track
- ground speed
- distance and time estimates relative to selected course or waypoint.
What Navigational Systems are included in RNAV
- VOR/DME RNAV
- Intertial Navigation Systems (INS)
- Global Positioning Systems (GPS)
RNP
Required Navigation Performance
- Set of standards that apply to both airspace and navigation equipment
- Aircraft must stay within a specified distance of the centerline of a route, path, or procedure at least 95% of the time
- Within 2nm for enroute ops
- Within 1nm for terminal operations
- Within 0.3nm for approach operations
VOR/DME RNAV
A Pre-GPS RNAV system that uses an airborne course-line computer (CLC) to create waypoints based on navigation data from VORTAC or VOR/DME facilities.
- These systems create “phantom VORs” at specified radials & distances from actual VORs, enabling more direct navigation.
- Required manual programming of waypoints to fly approaches (now prohibited)
- Being phased out
INS
Intertial Navigation System
- A self-contained system that uses gyros, accelerometers, and a nav computer to calculate position.
- By programming a series of waypoints, the system will navigate along a predetermined track
- Extremely accurate when set to known position upon departure
- Accuracy degrades 1 to 2nm per hour.
- Automatically update position by incorporating inputs from VOR, DME, &/or GPS.