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sus > individual diiferences l5-9 > Flashcards

individual diiferences l5-9 Flashcards

1
Q

sex vs gender definitions

A

sex = the biological and physiological characteristics that define male, female and intersex people.

gender = the socially constructed roles, behaviours, attributes and activitities that a given society considers appropriate for men, women and non-binary people.

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2
Q

why do sex differences matter?

A
  • women are less likely to major in stem subjects
  • 75% undergraduate psych women, only 18% APA journal editors are women.
  • women are more likely to leave faculty jobs and less likely to be promoted at every age and stage of work.
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3
Q

sex differences in general intelligence

A
  • most studies show no difference in IQ levels
  • difficult to measure as tests are designed to be gender neutral
  • males better at some factors and females at others, no difference overall.
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4
Q

sex differences in spatial ability

A

-tasks include: spatial perception, mental rotation, spatial visualisation, spatio-temporal ability
generation and maintenance of a spatial image.

  • males have larger advantage on all tasks except spatial visualisation across infants and older adults. (ability to mentally manipulate 2d and 3d figures)
  • women are more likely to use landmarks and relative directions, where men are more likely to use cardinal directions (N, E,S, W)
  • when only one solution was given, there was no difference
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5
Q

sex differences in verbal abilities

A
  • women do better than men in verbal reasoning and writing ability
  • young girls are more proficient in language skills than boys
  • effect sizes can be small but robust female advantage and across lifespan
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6
Q

sex differences in memory and attention

A
  • some evidence to suggest women are more sensitive to some attentional cues and distraction than men
  • large female advantage in episodic memory, but depends on nature of the task.
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7
Q

object/person orientation

reasons for sex differences

A
  • studies suggest men are on average biologically prediposed to systematize, and women are prediposed to empathize, communicate and care for others -> lack of replication and not alot of evidence to back it up
  • studies on infant perception show no sex differences
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8
Q

extreme male variability

reasons for sex differences

A

= males generally display greater variability in traits than females do.
- girls grades are more consistent overall, with more males at both ends of the tails
- more males in the STEM subjects pool

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9
Q

hemispheric asymmetry

reasons for sex differences

A

= functional differences between the left and right side of the brain
- Levy proposed that males have greater asymmetric brain organisation, with the left specializing in verbal processing and the right for spatial processing.
- male brain siperior in spaitial skills, female for verbal skills.
- no evidence that this drives differences in cognitive function.

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10
Q

stereotype threat and role models

reasons for sex differences

A
  • negative stereotypes affect female mathematical performance
  • women more strongly affected by stereotypes than men
  • Cognitive performance of people with disabilities higher when experimenter refers to having a disability
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11
Q

social explanations of sex differences

A
  • stem differences result from stereotypes that women are less able than men
  • environmental factors (gendered toys from a young age)
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12
Q

types of personality stability

A
  • measurement (reliability)
  • homotypic
  • heterotypic
  • mean level
  • rank order
  • by nature, personality traits should be stable across the lifespan
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13
Q

homotypic vs heterotypic stability

A

homotypic = the degree to which people express the same thoughts, feelings and behaviours across time.

heterotypic = consistency of underlying personality traits
- different observable manifestations at different ages
- for example a five year old may cry and hide behind their parents, but an adult would not do this

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14
Q

rank order vs mean level stability

A

rank order = whether a persons ranking relative to their cohort remains the same ( correlation of a specific personality traits assessed at two moments in time, at different ages.)

mean level = whether the absolute scores on each factor are stable (whether the rank order of individuals in a certain trait is maintained over time)

Rank-order stability is about how people’s positions relative to each other stay the same over time.
Mean-level stability is about whether the average level of a trait stays the same or changes over time.

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15
Q

rank order and mean level stability in context for understanding

A

if a study on extraversion shows that the ranking of individuals on extraversion remains fairly consistent between adolescence and adulthood (i.e., the person who was most extroverted as a teenager is still among the most extroverted as an adult), the study demonstrates rank-order stability. However, if the average level of extraversion in the entire group decreases with age (i.e., as people mature, the group becomes less extraverted), the study demonstrates mean-level stability.

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16
Q

how is personality stability studied

A

cross sectional -> can study mean level stability, confounded by cohort effects

longitudinal -> can study rank order and mean level stability, based on a single cohort questions generalisability,

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17
Q

social vitality

A

= defined in terms of traits such as socialability, high energy levels, positive affect, associate with others that are similar to self.

  • increases at college age
  • decreases from 22-30, then from 60-70
  • is otherwise stable
  • decreases with age?
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18
Q

social dominance

A

= is defined in terms of domiance, independence and self-confidence in social contexts

  • consistent pattern of increase until age 40, there fore after consider extraversion is decreasing?
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19
Q

age related changes across the big 5 personality traits

A

agreeableness:
- overall pattern of increase, inconsistent results in older age
- study found increase in 50-60 age range, others found an increase in young adulthood but a slight decrease in older adulthood.

concientiousness:
- small increases in adolescents and college age
- main increase from 20-50, then 60-70
- differences found between samples, one study found decrease in older adults

neuroticism:
- lower neuroticism and increased emotional stability across the lifespan

openess:
- increased at college age
- flat/ decreases therefore after

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20
Q

cumulative continuity principle

A

= the idea that early behavioral patterns and experiences can shape and influence an individual’s future behavior over time.

  • personality traits increase in rank order consistency across lifespan
    -Increasing stability with age although much slower increase after age 25
  • little difference between traits, more variability in A and O
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21
Q

why do we change across the lifespan

A
  • genetic predisposition
  • largely genetic in childhood but only plays small role in adulthood
  • life experiences (education, career, children)- closely associated with age
  • changes seen cross culturally
  • environment can change personality with reward/punishment (military)
  • different transitions and turning points one experiences in life at different times
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22
Q

why do we stay the same?

Corresponsive principle of personality development

A
  • The environment and personality interact to promote personality continuity
    ○ Attraction
    • selection
      ○ Attrition
      ○ Manipulation (each individual manipulates environment to suite their personality)
  • if a person chooses a job, such as management, because she is extraverted, then the experience of being a manager will make her even more extraverted than before.
23
Q

what does general cognitive ability predict?

A
  • academic success
  • job performance
  • social mobility
  • health and mortality
  • better quality of life in older age
24
Q

crystalised intelligence and age

A

= is the things that you know
- older adults out smart younger adults
- aspects such as: vocab, use of experience and knowledge, problem-solving, comprehension

25
Q

fluid intelligience and age

A
  • ## young adults better than older adults
  • aspects such as; reasoning, information processing, working memory, reaction time
26
Q

the flynn effect

A

= explains how the average IQ of humans steadily increases over time.
* Fluid intelligence increases ~15 points per generation
* Crystallised intelligence increases ~9 points per generation

  • role of environmental factors: visual and technical environment, improvements in nutrition

evidence that it is slowing/ reversing

27
Q

explanations for the flynn effect

A

cognitive stimulus hypothesis = interaction of genetics and the environment, higher IQ individuals seek out stimulating environments

nutrition hypothesis: increased nutrition over time

28
Q

the evolutionary theory for gender differences

A
  • sexual selection
  • parental investment (women carrying the child, so more caring and nurturing)
29
Q

cognitive social learning theory for gender differences

A
  • behaviour is shaped by reinforcement, punishment and imitation
  • internalised gender norms shape behaviour
30
Q

sociocultural theory in gender differences

A
  • psychological differences stem from social restrictions and opportunities available
  • (women not allowed to do certain jobs)
31
Q

gender differences in personality

A
  • clear gender differences in agreeableness and neuroticism
  • Women tend to score higher on agreeableness and neuroticism, while men tend to score higher on assertiveness and extraversion.
  • more difference in particular aspects ( warmth vs assertiveness are both aspects of extraversion, found that men and women have different scores on different subsections)
  • when all traits are combined, 84% overlap between men and women profiles
32
Q

impact of equality in egolitarian societies

gender differences

A

= societies that are more equal

  • there are larger gender differences in personality in egalitarian societies
    explanations for this:

bio explanation = egalitarian culture means men & women are freer to express evolved predispositions

social explanation = changes frame of reference from group to population, so increases difference scale. (when asked to compare yourself, compare yourself to all people instead of just your own gender group)

33
Q

trans research in gender differences

A
  • Personality traits of trans men change with testosterone administration
  • Decreased neuroticism and depression, increased extraversion
  • Hard to disentangle relationship with mental health from transition, is happiness due to being allowed to transission?
34
Q

concept of gender roles

A

= can be defned as all those expectations and beliefs about the appropriate roles for men and women in the private and public spheres.

  • is socially constructed
  • something we “do”
35
Q

male mental health

A
  • men report lower neurotisism and mental health issues than women but have higher ates of suicide and substanve abuse
  • why?
  • traditional masculine gender roles
  • higher levels of alexithymia (inability to describe ones emotions or recognise them)
  • harder to seek help
  • less liekly to be asked how they are feeling
  • link with testosterone (harder to cry/ aggression)
  • barrier to social support
36
Q

social predictors of gender equality

A

interest based =
when peoples interests benefit from gender equality, they are more likely to hold egalitarian beliefs
- men are less liekly to believe that gender equality will benefit them

exposure based =
- exposure to egalitarian ideas and situations increases egaliterian beliefs
- the need to see it

37
Q

parental roles in gender

A
  • men hold less egaliterian beliefs than women
  • Maternal labour forces participation and education associated with egalitarian beliefs and less stereotyped children (if mother is educated and works, more likely to believe in equality)
38
Q

biological essentialism

A

= the idea that behaviours, interests or abilities are biologically pre-determined, rather than shaped by society

  • Gender differences are discrete, biologically based, fixed, inherent, historically invariant, and highly informative

Belief that gender roles are fixed associated with preference for traditional roles

  • Higher scores on gender essentialism associated with less egalitarian views
    • Higher GE predicts support for gender discrimination
39
Q

sexual orientation and cognition

A

gender shifted patterns/ hypothesis = evidence that patterns of cognition are reversed for gay/lesbian and bisexual men and women.
(homosexual men and women will be similar in certain neurobehavioural and psychological traits such as spatial learning, verbal ability and memory to their opposite-sex heterosexual counterparts)

“Cisgender men who have more older brothers are more likely to be gay”
“Gay people have longer index fingers”

  • LGBTQ stem professionals are more likely to experience: harassment, career limitations, professional devaluation then hetero peers.
40
Q

sexual orientation and personality differences

A

neuroticism:
- higher among homosexual men than heterosexual men, lower among homosexual women than heterosexual women (gender shift)

openness:
- higher in homosexual than heterosexual participants regardless of gender

  • all effects decreased as sample age increased
  • no differences in C, E and A

bisexuals more open than heteros and homos, but less than both in conscientiousness

41
Q

sexual configurations theory

A
  • sexual orientation isnt just what we identify as, different components involved:
  • partner number (romantic/sexual)
  • who we are attracted to
  • sexual roles
  • different for every person, all aspects can vary in strength and importance
42
Q

sexuality and personality

A

extraversion: (mixed)
- sexual activity (+)
- sexual risk taking (+)
- sexual dysfunction/dissatisfaction (-)

neuroticism (negative)
- sexual dissatisfaction and negative emotional experience (+)

openness (neutral)
- sexual attraction and liberal attitudes (+)

conscientiousness (+)
- sexual dysfunction, risk taking, sexual aggression (-)

agreeableness(positive)
- sexual dysfunction, risk taking and aggression (-)

43
Q

impact of attitudes towards sexual minorities

A

67% increase in hate crimes on the basis of sexual orientation since 2014-15 (Scotland)
- 249% increase in hate crimes against trans people since 2014-2015 (Scotland)
- 67% say same-sex relationships are not wrong at all (2022, British social attitudes)
- Largely cohort, not age differences in attitudes to same sex relationships, some evidence of societal impact.
- more negative attitudes towards bisexuals than gay or lesbians (perceived greater instability/unsure of selves)

44
Q

predictors of attitudes towards sexual minorities

A

1.) gender = heterosexual men are more negative about gay men and more positive about lesbians than women, heterosexual men are more positive than women about bisexual women, but more negative about bi sexual men

2.) dislike of ambiguity = the need for closure and dislike of ambiguity predicts sexual prejudice towards LGB, and more so for bisexuals.

3.) gender roles = threatened masculinity predicts sexual prejudice in men
- womens gender roles allow for greater flexibility
- endorsement of traditional gender roles is predictive of prejudice in both men and women
who takes the male and female role in same sex relationships?

45
Q

attitudes towards asexuality

A
  • much less reseach done
  • asexuals threaten the assumption that sexual relationships are critical for happiness

attitudes are predicted by:
* Benevolent sexism (appear + towards women but actually belief in traditional roles)

* Hostile sexism(negative views toward individuals who violate traditional gender roles.)

* Social dominance orientation(degree to which individuals prefer that dominant groups stay on top)

* Right-wing authoritarianism
* Traditional gender role beliefs
* Awareness and contact
        Sexual orientation
46
Q

what is sexual prejudice related to?

A
  • essentialism
  • traditional gender roles
  • dislike of ambuigity
47
Q

how billingualism impacts decision-making

A

1.) cognitive effect
- switching between languages strengthens executive functions which can help them to:
- Reducing cognitive biases: Bilinguals are better at suppressing irrelevant information, which can help them make decisions that are more objective and less influenced by impulsive biases.

when L2 is used:
- Adopt a more analytical mindset: Decision-making in L2 is often less emotionally charged because the second language is processed with less emotional intensity than the first language (L1).

Greater risk tolerance: Studies suggest that bilinguals exhibit greater willingness to take calculated risks when making decisions in L2 because they evaluate options more dispassionately.

48
Q

framing effect

A

proposes that individuals make decisions based on how an issue is presented, or “framed,” rather than on the facts presented. It is a cognitive default to choose an option that is more positively presented, or framed.

49
Q

what are the reasons behind indivuals making more logical decisions in L2

A
  • psychological distance
  • reduced sensitivity to negative emotion
  • low proficiency (processing meaning)
50
Q

biculturalism and cultural frame shift

A
  • billinguals accquire and use their languages for different purposes, in different domains of life with different people.

cultural frame shift = it is not a shift in personality, just a shift in situation or context, language serves as a cue for activating the cultural norms, behaviors, and thought patterns associated with that language

51
Q

billingualism and personality

A
  • gives a different way of perceiving and displaying ones personality
  • evidence for higher extraversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness in L2
  • however, less emotional, more logical in L2
52
Q

heritability and environmental factors in IQ

A
  • heritability = variance in IQ that is down to genetic predisposition. ( likeliness with parents IQ)
  • environment plays major role in IQ:
  • children deprived of schooling
  • children in poverty do not get to develop full genetic potential
  • poor vs rich environement growing up
53
Q

racial differences in IQ

A
  • no evidence to support a genetic hypothesis
  • strong evidence for environmental factors (education, stress, stereotype threat, culture)
  • threat of research bias being carried out by white supremists
  • methodolgy issues -> samples not representative, datasets not constructed without bias
54
Q

loss aversion

A

real or potential loss is perceived by individuals as psychologically or emotionally more severe than an equivalent gain

  • Participants in first language more likely to be risk averse, second language more likely to gamble and take the bet

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