individual differences lecture 1-4

Question 1

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religion and religiousness definitions

Answer 1

religion = an organized system of beliefs, practices and symbols designed to enable closeness to god.

religiousness = the degree of one’s involvementand personal significance attatched to such a system.

Question 2

religious beliefs: Ellis (1980’s)

Answer 2

= a belief in a divine or superhuman power/powers to be obeyed and worshipped as the creators and rulers of the universe.
is this irrational?
- supports the idea that we need to feel love by a significant figure, can we live in a world where we are not accepted by others?
- achieving inside the church means that failure outwith does not matter?
- concept of sin and punishment, promotes shame if we go agaisnt our religion
- we can only regulate our emotions if we turn to God
- God can protect us from bad things

Question 3

measurable dimensions of religiousness

Answer 3

• faith
• rituals
• experiences
• religious knowledge
• community

Question 4

types of religiousity

intrinsic religiosity

Answer 4

• religion is the framework for all aspects of ones life
• living ones religion
• negatively correlates with depression, anxiety, obsessions and compulsions
• positively correlated with self-control, active coping and self-esteem.
• better self acceptance?
• less liekly to be divorced, lower smoking and alcohol levels

Question 5

extrinsic religiosity

Answer 5

• allows us to be part of an in-group
• social, every so often “to make friends”
• using their religion
• both extrinsic and intrinsic have been critisised for being too simplistic.

Question 6

self-determination theory

Answer 6

how we endorse our religious values affects our behaviours.

Question 7

identified religiosity

Answer 7

= personal convictions deeply valued
individuals consciously choose to align with and live by their religious principles because they find them personally meaningful, rather than because of external pressures or obligations.

• positive effect on mental health, self esteem, and psychological adjustment.
• more tolerance and pro-sociality?

Question 8

introjected religiosity

Answer 8

= socially pressured beliefs, need for approval from others, feel they “should” or “must”.

• negative effects on mental health, self esteem and psychological adjustment

more about seeking approval from in-groups, more prejudice towards others?

Question 9

measuring religiousity

Answer 9

• scales and questionairres used
• I/E-R scales determine one of four religious subtypes.
• the christian religious internalization scale is used to measure introjected and identified religiosity

Question 10

attitudes and behaviours in the context of religiosity

Answer 10

• belief in God significantly positively correlated with prosocial behaviour.
• religious participants were more likely thsn non-religious participants to engage in prosocial behvaiour, their reasons were not due to just “being free” when asked by a student to help them with their masters project.
• unkind answers were more likely in low/non-religious participants.
• if beliefs do not align with own, behaviours change towards outgroups. (higher aggression)
• example ->

Question 11

new religious movements (cults)

Answer 11

• gives a sense of belonging and identitiy, commitment implies importance, provides direction andd guidance in life.
• reasons for leaving: loss of faith, hierachy conflict, wanting to be in touch with family
• reasons for staying: need to belong, intensity of emotions, relationships that have been built, had distanced themselves from family/jobs
• can plead insanity for violent crimes carried out under beliefs -> not guilty
• cult critics; think they are psychologically harmful
• sympathizers: represent an alternative cult.

Question 12

equality act

Answer 12

9 protected characteristics
- age, disability, gender reassignment, marriage and civil partnership, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sex, and sexual orientation

Question 13

religion as a protected characteristic

Answer 13

having a religion or not having one
-> may be discriminated against for recruitment, dress code, time off work for religious reasons

Question 14

what does religion generally give us?

Answer 14

• sense of meaning/ purpose
• social support
• healthier lifestyles
• care and concern for others
• private coping through prayer etc

Question 15

when things are going well in religious life

Answer 15

• general meaning and hope
• protection against depression
• Religion negatively correlates with vulnerability to hopelessness and suicidal thinking
• Religiosity reduces death anxiety

Question 16

deviations from religious norms

Answer 16

• backsliding, doubt, feelings of abandonment
• poorer mental health (guilt, shame, depression)
• often linked to extrinsic religiosity
• religious doubts associated with increased age after experiencing loss
• higher distress, depressive symptoms and anxiety in protestants who didn’t attend church regulary, read bibe and pray regulary compared to those who did (study).

Question 17

scrupulosity

Answer 17

= a subtype of OCD where religion and OCD intersect.
- religion is a common theme in obsessions
- doubt/ fear of commiting sin -> punishment from ones God
- rules/ structure
- type of religiosity
- increased scrupulosity predicted decreased quality of life, increased anxiety and depression -> is this due to fear of sin?, perceived failures?

Question 18

cognitive and behavioral components of scrupulosity

Answer 18

cognitive:
- pathological obsessions relating to moral/religious issues
- extreme tunnel vision of religious issues
- guilt/ responsibilities
- moral rumination (repetitive behaviours)

behavioural;
compulsive confessions
compulsive rituals (prayer)
social isolation
affective components - shame, uncertainty

Question 19

mental contamination

Answer 19

= obsessive thoughts can arise without coming into contact with a physical contaminant
- type of scrupulosity
- perceived impurity, guilt

Question 20

adaptive and maladaptive perfectionism

Answer 20

• Adaptive perfectionism= set high goals and personal standards
  leads to higher self esteem, quality of life, lower anxiety an scrupulosity.
• Maladaptive perfectionism= unrealistic standards, need to be in control (like scrupulosity)

Question 21

religion and the big 5 personality traits

Answer 21

agreeability and conscientiousness -> positively correlated with religiosness:
-Conscientiousness are more rule conformant, more likely to stay faithful (to a faith/religion)?
- Agreeableness could be seen as a motivator for, e.g. kindness, altruism, forgiveness, and love: people might move into religiousness

• Openness( can conflict with religiousness due to confinements of religious thinking, but may predispose people to religion)

Basic religious beliefs negatively correlated with neuroticism and positively correlated with O,C,E,A

Question 22

personality in adolescents

Answer 22

-Religiousness is typically inversely related to psychoticism

• Increased religiosity associated with lower levels of risk behaviors in young adults
• Increased religiosity associated with lower anxiety and depression/ higher self esteem

Question 23

non clinical anxiety

Answer 23

state anxiety (1) = a temporary emotional state in response to the presence of threatning stimuli

trait anxiety (2) = characteristic pattern of a heightened level of arousal to a wide variety of stimuli attributed to an internal condition of the individual.

• both types can be measured using 20 Q questionairre
• state is how you feel in the momment
• trait is how you generally feel

Spielbergs state-trait anxiety inventory can be used to measure state of trait.

Question 24

anxiety disorders- generalised anxiety disorder

Answer 24

DSM-5:
- persistent worry for over 6 months about many events/activities
- trouble controlling said worry
- 3+ of restlessness, tires easily, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance
- significant impairment in daily life

cognitive factors:
“what if..”
disturbed thought proccess (maladaptive assumptions)
interpret an event as threatning -> anxiety aroused -> fear is experienced -> anxiety is provoked.

• 2x as many females
• high association with depression

Question 25

anxiety disorders- phobic disorders

Answer 25

DSM-5:
- persistent fear of an object/ situation that is unreasonable/ excessive, lasting over 6 months
- immediate anxiety when faced with object
- recognition that fear is excessive
- avoiding said object
- significant distress/impairment

simple phobia = irrational fear triggered by a specific situation or a specific object.

Question 26

social anxiety disorder

Answer 26

DSM-5:
- fear of 1+ social situations, where scrutiny is plausible, leading to fear of humiliation
- exposure to situation provokes anxiety
- knowledge that this fear is unreasonable
- not accounted for by any other condition
- avoidance of situations
- interferes with normal functioning

• positively correlated with neuroticism, negatively with extraversion
• usually starts with shyness in childhood
• most common form is public speaking
• 3:2 ratio of female to male

symptoms:
- nausea, increased heart rate
- negative self thoughts
- indirect avoidance (substance use)

cognitive factors:
- intolerance of uncertainty
- thinking worrying is positive
- cognitive avoidance (tuning out, distraction)

Question 27

attentional bias

Answer 27

we selectively allocate our attentional resources towards or away from a specific stimulus, when other info is also available at that time, useful to avoid threat.

- However, people with a disorder give too much attention towards negative stimuli, deviating from that of the general population, this can contribute to maintenance of their disorder

Question 28

self schemas

Answer 28

• Individuals prone to hypervigilance may have maladaptive self-schemas that consequently maintain their disorder
• Self-schemas are categories of knowledge that reflect how we expect ourselves to think, feel, and act in particular settings or situations.
  • Hypervigilance — the elevated state of constantly assessing potential threats around you

Question 29

shyness and how it compares with social anxiety disorder

Answer 29

• is not a disorder on its own
  state shyness = situation/ state dependent
  trait shyness = relatively stable personality trait
  types:
  publicly shy = experssions of discomfort in social settings (sweating..)
  privately shy = appears social but experiences internal bodily discomfort in social settings (increased heart rate)
  socially anxious shy = Distress created by cognitive characteristics pertaining to social anxiety disorder

components:
affective (psychophysiological expressions)
cognitive (self conciousness, negative self evaluation, shame)
behavioural (not talking, avoiding eye contact)
physiological (heart rate, muscle tension)

positive correlation with shyness and modesty, this is negatively correlated with extraversion and positively with neuroticism.

Question 30

dyslexia

Answer 30

= a learning difficulty/ disability involving reading, writing and spelling.

• can be acquired later in life through brain damage
• can reduce academic attainment and self esteem.
• no bearing on intelligence
• reported cross-culturally
• may be at risk for test anxiety

Question 31

subtypes of dyslexia

Answer 31

surface = difficulties reading irregular words (through, cough, have).

phonological = difficulties reading pronounceable non-words ( cannot read chirt, fonkle but can read shirts, fankle)

Question 32

phonological representation/ reading fluency deficits and dyslexia

Answer 32

= the mental representation of speech and its sounds (acoustic, linguistic and cognitive)

• dyslexia is caused by deficits in this ability.
• difficulties in representing, storing and retrieving speech.
• language processing is impaired
• they have reading fluency deficits and spend effort decoding words

Question 33

rapid automatized naming deficits

Answer 33

= how easily/ quickly can one retrieve and name a familiar visual stimulus, and naming speed is measured
- visual verbal disconnection reflected in difficulties reading
- involve a delay in the ability to quickly name familiar items example row of letters

the ability to read effortlessly and automatic with little attention to the mechanisms of reading.

Question 34

Dyscalculia

Answer 34

= learning difficulty relating to math. arithmetic
- can often occur with dyslexia
- can include; difficulties counting backwards, slow math calculations, math anxiety, avoidance of tasks involving getting the wrong answer
- 3-6% of children
- prevalence rates are similar and frequently co-occur with dyslexia

Question 35

Type A personality characteristics

Answer 35

• time urgency
• hurried
• competitive
• anger
• hostility
• dislike time wasting
• related to workaholism

Question 36

type B personality characteristics

Answer 36

• laid back
• relaxed
• less compulsive
• unhurried
• hard workers when necessary

Question 37

type D personality type

Answer 37

D= distressed
- worrisome
- low mood
- pessimistic
- easily irritated
- lack of hope
- linked with depressed mood, anxiety and stress
- characterised by social inhibition and negative affect
- they deal with stress in a different way, less responsive to treatment
- reduced well being overall

Question 38

coronary heart disease and the link with personality

Answer 38

• Friedman and Rosenman wnated to identify risk factors that may predict developement of heart disease
  -no physical indicators but set of behaviours (personality types)
• type D is consistent with heart disease and specific clusters of psychological risk factors (1/4 people)
• Type A significantly higher in new diagnosed cases of coronary heart disease
• increased depression, hostility and anger in those who are left to suffer with it

Question 39

skills associated with dyscalculia

Answer 39

precursor skills = problems in quantitity estimation, impaired innate number sense

number skills = impaired access to the mental number line, counting skills, problems with symbolic representations

calculation skills = use fingers to count, no understanding of calculation procedures

Question 40

why people have the same negative experience but conceptualise them diff

relationship between personality, illness, and health

Answer 40

learned helplessness = belief that they are unable to control or change situation so they don’t even try

pessimism= requires less mental effort, see challenges as their own fault, out of their control
- lower self esteem, higher negative mood

optimisim = see challenges as a setback/ hopeful about the future
- better physical health, longer lifespan

Question 41

optimistic bias

Answer 41

= some people may be able to selectively update their information processing in a positive way.
- cognitive bias that causes someone to believe that they themselves are less likely to experience a negative event.
- can this lead to people adopting to riskier lifestyles?

Question 42

relationship between positive and negative emotions, physical health, and mental well-being

data from the gallup world poll

Answer 42

happy group;
- higher life satisfaction
- optimism about the future

unhappy group;
- low current and anticipated life satisfaction
- no positive feelings
- lower income
- more pain, health issues
- frequent stress

average happy group;
- somewhere in the middle but more similarities to happy group

subjective well-being is positvely correlated with;
- income
- social resoures
- health
- basic needs being met