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Fifth Year Biology > Immunity & Diseases > Flashcards

Immunity & Diseases Flashcards

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1
Q

Define a communicable disease

A

A disease that can be passed from one organism to another

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2
Q

Define non-communicable disease

A

A disease that is not passed from one organism to another

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3
Q

Define health

A

Being free from communicable and non communicable disease.

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4
Q

Name four microbes, their type, how they spread and control of them

A 
- HIV : 
virus
exchange of body fluids during sex or infected blood
avoid sharing needles and use condoms
- Colds & Flu :
virus 
Airborne 
Use of tissues, washing hands, flu vaccines
- Salmonella :
Bacterium
From contaminated food 
Good food hygiene 
- Tuberculosis :
Bacterium
Coughs and sneezes 
Vaccination and antibiotic treatment
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5
Q

List six functions/ parts of the body that prevent entry of microbes

A

Skin - dead outer layer of skin forms a barrier to microorganisms
Mucus - present in the respiratory system to trap microorganisms. Cilia move the mucus upwards
Clotting - stops blood escaping and prevents the entry of microorganisms where the skin has been damaged
Hair follicles - Glands in the skin make an antiseptic oil
Stomach - acid made by the lining of the stomach kills germs
Eyes - Tear glands make an antiseptic Fluid which kills germs

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6
Q

Define antigen

A

A protein on a foreign object that stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies

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7
Q

Name the four stages of phagocytosis

A
  1. Detection
  2. Migration
  3. Bacteria become engulfed
  4. Digestion
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8
Q

What is primary response ?

A

The infected individual is often ill for a few days as the lymphocytes produce antibodies. The level of antibodies in the blood rises until all of the microbes are destroyed. This makes the body immune to the disease.

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9
Q

What is secondary response ?

A

The body has produced memory lymphocytes, meaning if the infection by the same type of microorganisms occurs again these lymphocytes will produce antibodies very fast to stop the individual catching the same disease again

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10
Q

What is natural active immunity ?

A

The body actively produces antibodies in response to invading microbes. It is slow acting but provides long-lasting protection

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11
Q

Give an example of natural active immunity

A
  • Primary response when a microorganism enters the body (natural active immunity)
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12
Q

What is artificial passive immunity ?

A

This is when ready-made antibodies, from another source, are introduced to the body. It is fast acting and only lasts a short period of time as no memory lymphocytes are produced

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13
Q

Describe natural passive immunity

A

Babies are given ready-made antibodies across the placenta and in their mother’s first milk (colostrum). This helps them fight infection until their own immune systems are working. Since the baby does not produce them it is a passive immunity.

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14
Q

Give two examples of passive immunity

A
  • breast milk (natural passive immunity)

- anti-venom provides artificial passive immunity after a poisonous bite

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15
Q

What do vaccines contain? (4)

A
  • dead pathogens
  • live pathogens treated to make them harmless
  • harmless fragments of the pathogen
  • toxins produced by pathogens
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16
Q

How do vaccines work?

A

When injected into the body, they stimulate white blood cells to produce antibodies against the pathogen. This leads to memory lymphocytes being produced that will bring about a rapid immune response if a further infection occurs

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17
Q

Name two structural defences plants have against infectious microorganisms

A
  • waxy cuticle to prevent microorganisms entering the leaf

- thick cell walls to prevent microorganisms entering the cells

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18
Q

Give examples of chemical defences plants have

A
  • antimicrobial chemicals produced by mint can kill or reduce the growth of bacteria
  • digitalis made by foxgloves is poisonous to slugs and other animals that feed on it
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19
Q

Define antibiotic

A

Chemicals produced by fungi that kill or prevent the growth of bacteria

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20
Q

Who and when discovered penicillin?

A

Alexander Fleming in the 1920s

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21
Q

Who and when produced a pure form of penicillin?

A

In the 1940s Howard Florey and Ernst Chain

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22
Q

What is the fungi that makes penicillin grown in?

A

Large bio digesters or fermenters that create the perfect conditions for fungal growth, extract penicillin, purify it and then package it on a process known as downstreaming

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23
Q

Why are preclinical trials necessary ?

A
  • check if the drug is poisonous or harmful

- check how effective the drug is

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24
Q

Why are superbugs such a serious problem in hospitals ?

A
  • patients have weak immune systems
  • patients may have open wounds that allow the entry of microorganisms
  • the environment is antibiotic rich — microorganisms come into contact with many different antibiotics promoting resistance
25
Q

How to prevent the spread of superbugs in hospitals:

A
  • increased hygiene
  • greater care when administering antibiotics
  • isolate ‘superbug’ patients from other patients
26
Q

Aseptic technique define

A

Using practices and procedures to prevent contamination from pathogens. It involves applying the strictest rules to minimise the spread of superbugs like MRSA

27
Q

List four aseptic techniques

A
  • no eating or drinking in the lab
  • wiping bench with disinfectant/alcohol
  • not growing microorganisms at body temperature
  • using sterile loops when transferring cultures
28
Q

List four major lifestyle factors associated with development of disease

A
  • Poor diet with excess sugar and fat intake
  • Lack of exercise where energy used in exercise being lower than energy intake which causes obesity
  • Over exposure to sun (UV radiation causes mutations leading to skin cancer)
  • Misuse of drugs
29
Q

List four reasons why exercise improves health

A

Lower cholesterol
Strengthen muscles including heart
Reduces stress
Burns calories and gets rid of excess energy and fat

30
Q

How does overexposure to the sun damage humans?

A
  • UV radiation from the sun or sun beds can cause skin cancer
  • The possibility of getting it can be reduced by reducing the time spent in strong sun, covering up or using sun lotion.
32
Q

How is being healthy important to society?

A

Very unhealthy people cannot work and need lots of medical care, which costs the (NHS) billions of pounds each year. Money needs to be spent on doctors, nurses and other medical staff salaries plus the maintenance of hospitals and health centres and medicines needed to treat people.

33
Q

Describe three communicable diseases: one bacterial, viral and one fungal (3)

A

Chlamydia : Bacterium
Spread by: Sexual Contact
Prevention: Using a condom
Treatment: Antibiotics

HPV: Virus
Spread by: Sexual Contact
Prevention: HPV vaccination offered to 12-13 year old girls to prevent cervical cancer

Athlete’s Foot: Fungus
Spread by: Contact
Prevention: Avoiding Direct Contact with spores
Treatment: Anti-Fungal treatment

34
Q

Define a droplet infection

A

Droplet infection is the spread of disease through coughing and sneezing infected droplets into the air

35
Q

How do lymphocytes deal with microbes ? (6)

A
  • All foreign cells have chemicals on the surfaces that mark them as foreign. These chemicals are protein molecules and are called antigens.
  • Antigens cause special white blood cells called lymphocytes to produce antibodies.
  • These antibodies are complementary in shape (a perfect match) to the antigen.
  • The antibodies attach to the antigens causing a clump.
  • Once in this trapped clump the microbes can be easily destroyed.
  • The body makes memory lymphocytes that stay in the body after we have recovered from the infection. They can respond to any future infections by the same microbe very quickly.
36
Q

How do phagocytes target microbes? (3)

A
  • The phagocyte detects pathogens
  • It moves towards them and surrounds them with cytoplasm (engulfs)
  • Enzymes enter the vesicle and digest the pathogens which destroys them
37
Q

Describe artificial active immunity

A

Vaccinations are injections of dead or modified pathogens. They have the antigen marks on their cell surfaces but they will not make us ill. They cause the normal reaction with lymphocytes and allow the production of antibodies. Also there are memory lymphocytes left in the body that give the person long term immunity.

Booster injections are often given to ensure there is a high enough level of antibody in the blood to provide immunity.

38
Q

Give 3 structural and chemical defences plants have against infectious microorganisms

A
  • Waxy cuticle to prevent microorganisms entering the leaf
  • Thick cell walls to prevent microorganisms entering the cells
  • Plants can produce chemicals that kill infectious microbes
39
Q

Antibiotics definition -

A

Chemicals produced by fungi that kill or prevent the growth of bacteria

40
Q

Name two features of the phagocyte

A
  • They have a lobed nucleus and can change shape to squeeze out of capillaries into infected tissue
  • They are not specific and will target any foreign cell.
41
Q

Explain how misuse of drugs can cause non-communicable diseases (4)

A
  • Alcohol:
    + binge drinking can cause liver disease
    + affect foetal development (foetal alcohol syndrome)
  • Tobacco smoke:
    + Tar can cause bronchitis (narrowing of bronchi and bronchioles)
    + Stops cilia from moving dirty mucus of lungs
    + Therefore more likely to develop chest infections
    + Emphysema (damage to alveoli reducing the surface area for gas exchange)
    + Lung cancer (abnormal cell division)
  • Nicotine:
    + is addictive and affects heart rate
    + Affects the area of the brain responsible for attention, memory and learning
  • Carbon monoxide:
    + combines with red blood cells to reduce the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood
42
Q

Cause and effect of a blockage in a blood vessel (4)

A
  • Blockage cause by a build up of cholesterol deposits leads to clot formation
  • Restricted blood flow means less oxygen and glucose reaching cells and the resulting reduced cell respiration leads to cell death
  • A blockage in the coronary blood vessels restricts blood flow to the heart muscle and causes death of heart muscle cells (heart attack)
  • a blockage in the blood vessels to the brain causes death of brain cells, resulting in reduced brain function (stroke)
43
Q

Name one other harmful chemical found on cigarette smoke and explain why it is dangerous

A

Acetone - Causes hark to the nervous system (irritates lining of airways and causes damage to organs)

44
Q

How do governments reduce the amount of people that smoke ? (2)

A
  • Smoking bans

- High levels of tax

45
Q

Describe the progression of CHD (6)

A
  • A diet high in fat and cholesterol
  • Fatty substances build up in the walls of arteries
  • Blood flow to organs is reduced
  • A complete blockage may occur
  • Oxygen and glucose cannot reach tissues
  • Tissues cannot respire and so die
46
Q

How is CHD treated with stent angioplasty (4)

A
  • A dye is introduced to their blood stream and X rays taken
  • This dye allows doctors to see where vessels have been narrowed
  • A stent (small expandable mesh) can be inserted into the blood vessel via keyhole surgery
  • The steht then expands holding the vessel open ensuring effective blood flow
47
Q

How is CHD treated with drugs ?

A
  • Statins can be prescribed to lower cholesterol

- To thin the blood (aspirin)

48
Q

How are cancerous cells recognised ?

A

Due to their thickened cell membranes and enlarged nuclei

49
Q

Describe the difference between a benign and malignant tumour (2)

A
  • A benign tumour may be encapsulated in a membrane and doesn’t spread
  • Malignant tumours are more dangerous as the cancerous cells can break away and spread to other parts of the body
50
Q

Cause and prevention of
Cervical cancer
Lung cancer
Skin cancer (3)

A

HPV Vaccination
Not smoking
Wearing sun screen

51
Q

What is a screening programme

A

A regular check in a select group of people for the screening of cancer

52
Q

Describe the surgery treatment for cancer and the advantages and disadvantages (3)

A
  • Cancerous cells are removed during operation
  • Can remove all cancerous cells
  • Ineffective if the cancer has spread and can be dangerous with certain organs
53
Q

Describe the radiotherapy treatment for cancer and the advantages and disadvantages (3)

A
  • radiation such as x rays can be targeted onto cancerous cells and kill them
  • useful for small external tumours, need for surgery is avoided
  • normal healthy cells can be affected leading to side effects. Not all tissue reached by radiation
54
Q

Describe the chemotherapy treatment for cancer and the advantages and disadvantages (3)

A
  • A combination of drugs is used to slow the growth of or kill the cancerous cells
  • Can kill cells anywhere in the body
  • Side effect include normal healthy cells being affected and hair loss
55
Q

Describe the immunotherapy treatment for cancer and the advantages and disadvantages (3)

A
  • Uses artificially produced antibodies that attach to cancer cells allowing the body’s immune system to destroy them
  • Only cancerous cells are affected
  • Relatively new technology so only limited types of cancer have an effective immunotherapy treatment
56
Q

Name the microbe that causes spread of spores in potato’s

A

Potato blight

57
Q

What are clinical trials necessary for ?

A

To determine the correct dosage required. If these trials are successful the drug can be licensed for use

58
Q

Describe preclinical trials (4)

A
  • First involves testing a drug in a lab on cells and tissues (in-vitro testing)
  • Drugs are then tested on animals
  • Animal testing allows scientists to check how well the drug works on an entire living organism
  • Computer modelling is also carried out at this stage
59
Q

What is the significance of peer review ? (3)

A
  • Scientific research (including drug development) needs to be tested and validated to ensure any conclusions arising from the research are correct
  • In peer review, new research and discoveries are scrutinised by other experts in the same field of work
  • After the reviewers provide feedback, the results of the research can be published

Fifth Year Biology (13 decks)

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