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A-Level Biology > Immune Response > Flashcards

Immune Response Flashcards

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1
Q

Describe non-specific responses

A

Responds to all pathogens in the same way
Act immediately
Barrier to block pathogens

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2
Q

Give an example of a non-specific in the body

A

Phagocytosis

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3
Q

What do tears contain?

A

Salt and lysozome that kills microbes

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4
Q

Whyat do eyelashes prevent?

A

Dust/dirt from getting in the eye

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5
Q

What does our skin act as?

A

Outer layer acts as a tough barrier

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6
Q

What does the hair follicles on the skin make?

A

Sebum (oily substance)

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7
Q

What does the nose contain to stop pathogens from getting in?

A

Hairs and mucus

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8
Q

What does the blood contain that is a non-specific response?

A

Phagocytes and platelets

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9
Q

What does the stomach contain that kills microbes?

A

Acid

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10
Q

What makes the mucus in the trachea?

A

Goblet cells

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11
Q

Why is mucus good in the lungs?

A

Becasue it prevents microbes from getting in

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12
Q

Why must lymphocytes recognise between self and non-self material?

A

Or they would destroy your own tissue

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13
Q

What do cells all have to prvent lymphocytes from destroying self material?

A

Specific molecules on their surface

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14
Q

Why is there a huge variety of cell markers?

A

Huge range of amino acids
Have a highly specific tertiary structure
Gives them a variety of specific 3D structures
Allows one cell to be distinguished from another

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15
Q

What do antigens do?

A

Trigger an immune response

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16
Q

Name some antigens

A

Glycoproteins
Polysaccharides
Lipids
Nucleic acid

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17
Q

What do antigens allow the immune system to identify?

A

Pathogens
Non-self material
Toxins
Abnormal body cells

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18
Q

What is the advantage of antigens?

A

It allows rapid recognition of these cells, which allows them to be dealt with effectively

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19
Q

What is the disadvantage of antigens?

A

Transplant patients may have the transplanted organ rejected because the immune systme recognises it as non-self

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20
Q

How do you minimise the risk of the organ being rejected?

A

Donor tissues are closely matched

Immunosuppressant drugs are given to reduce immune response

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21
Q

Where are adult lymphocytes produced?

A

Bone marrow

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22
Q

What ahppens to lymphocytes that produce an immune response to self material?

A

Apoptosis (programmed cell death)

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23
Q

When must apoptosis happen before and why?

A

Before they differntiate into mature lymphocytes to prevent them appearing in the blood

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24
Q

Why are infections rare before birth?

A

Due to the placenta and mother’s defences

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25
Q

In the fetus what are lymphocytes constanly colliding with?

A

With other body cells

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26
Q

What do lymphocytes collide exclusively with?

A

Body’s own cells as they have protein receptors that match the body’s own cells

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27
Q

Why do lymphocytes die/ be suppressed?

A

So that the only ones at birth fit non-self material

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28
Q

What is the first step of phagocytosis?

A

Phagocyte detects chemicl products of pathogen

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29
Q

What are the chemical products called produced by the pathogen?

A

Chemoattractants

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30
Q

What is the second step of phagocytosis?

A

Phagocyte comes into contact with the pathogen and the recpetors on the phagocyte’s surface attacks the chemicals on the pathogen’s surface

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31
Q

What is the third step of phagocytosis?

A

Phagosome is formed by engulfing the bacterium

and the lysosomes inside the phagocyte move towrds the phagosome

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32
Q

What is the fourth step of phagocytosis?

A

Lysosomes release lysozymes into the phagosome and hydrolyses the bacterium

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33
Q

What is the fifth (final) step of phagocytosis?

A

Hydrolysis products of bacterium are absorbed by the phagocyte

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34
Q

What is infection?

A

The interaction between the pathogen and the body’s various defense mechanisms

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35
Q

What is immunity?

A

The abilty to resist infections by protecting agaisnt pathogens or their toxins that have invaded the body

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36
Q

What is an antigen?

A

A molecule that is recognised as non-self by the immune system which triggers an immune response

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37
Q

Describe specific responses

A

Reacts to specific antigens
Response is slower but provides long term immunity
Requires lymphocytes

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38
Q

Where are T lymphocytes matured?

A

Thymus gland

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39
Q

What do T cells provide?

A

Cell mediated immunity

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40
Q

What do T cells respond to?

A

Antigens presented on body cells (not fluids)
Foreign material inside the body
Own cells altered by virusses/cancer or transplanted tissue

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41
Q

What are cells called that display foreign antigens?

A

Antigen presenting cells

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42
Q

What do receptors on each Tcell respond to?

A

A single antigen

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43
Q

Describe how Tcells work

A

Pathogen inavde body + taken in by phagocytes
Phagocyte places antigens from pathogen on its surface
Receptors on T H cells fit onto these antigens
Activates other Tcells to divide rapidly by mitosis + form clone

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44
Q

What do cloned Tcells develop into?

A

Memory cells

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45
Q

Why are memory cells important?

A

Allow fast future response to the same pathogen

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46
Q

What do cloned Tcells stimulate?

A

Phagocytes to engulf pathogens

Bcells to divide + secrete antibodies

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47
Q

What do cloned Tcells activate?

A

Cytotoxic Tcells (Tc cells)

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48
Q

What are the 4 ways help Tcells to distinguish between these and own cells?

A

Phagocytes present antigens
Body cells present viral antigens
Cancer cells look different + present antigens
Transplanted cells have different antigens

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49
Q

What does HIV stand for?

A

Human immunodeficiency virus

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50
Q

What does AIDS stand for?

A

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

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51
Q

How did HIV arise?

A

It jumped the species barrier - transferred from primate to human
Due to eating or slaughtering chimpanzees

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52
Q

What are the ways HIV is transferred?

A 
Sexual intercourse 
Drug-taking using infected needles 
Blood infection of wounds 
Blood transfusions 
Mother to child across the placenta + via breast milk
53
Q

What are the symptoms of HIV?

A 
Fever 
Sore throat
Body rash 
Tiredness 
Joint pain 
Muscle pain
Swollen glands (nodes)
54
Q

What are the symptoms of AIDS?

A 
Weight loss
Chronic diarrhoea 
Night sweats
Skin problems
Recurrent infections 
Serious life threatening illness
55
Q

What is reverse transcriptase?

A

Enzyme that catalysed the production of DNA from RNA

56
Q

What does it mean that HIV uses reverse transcriptase?

A

This means it is a retrovirus

57
Q

How many T helper cells do healthy people have?

A

800-1200

58
Q

How many T helper cells does AIDS suffers have?

A

<200

59
Q

Since people with AIDS do not have enough T cells what does this mean?

A

B cells can’t be stimulated
Cytotoxic T cells cannot be activated
Memory cells are infected + destroyed

60
Q

Does HIV cause death?

A

No the secondary illnesses do

61
Q

Why do antibiotics not destroy viruses?

A

As they don’t have a metabolic pathway so there is nothing for the antibiotic to disrupt

62
Q

Why do they use antibiotics to treat bacteria?

A

Bacterial cells have cell walls made of murein
Murein is tough and not easily stretched
Water enters by osmosis
Which weakens the wall
Causes them to burst

63
Q

What do B cells respond to?

A

Foreign material outside of body cells

64
Q

Where do B cells mature?

A

Mature in bone marrow

65
Q

What type of immunity do B cells lead to?

A

Humoral immunity

66
Q

What are B cells soluble in?

A

Blood and tissue fluid

67
Q

Describe how B cells work

A

Surface antigens taken up by B cells
B cells process + present them on their surface
T cells attach to processed antigens on B cells
Activates B cells
Divide by mitosis
THEN TWO ROUTES

68
Q

Why is reinfection unlikely?

A

Due to memory cells

69
Q

Why does reinfection sometimes occur?

A

Because diseases have many different strains

70
Q

What is called when antigens constantly change?

A

Antigenic variation

71
Q

What does the body have to do when antigenic variation occurs?

A

Start from scratch with primary response
As antibodies are no longer complementary
So you develop symptoms

72
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody that kills cancer cells?

A

Herceptin

73
Q

What cancers does herceptin kill?

A

Ovarian and breast

74
Q

How does herceptin kill cancer cells?

A

Blocks immediate growth signal and marks cancer cells for destruction

75
Q

What is the advantages of using monoclonal antibodies to destroy cancer cells?

A

It doesn’t target other body cells

76
Q

What does indirect monoclonal antibodies therapy do?

A

Attach radioactive or cytotoxic

77
Q

How do pregnancy tests work?

A

hCG hormone released into urine
hCG attaches to antibody joined to coloured marker
hCG-Ab-coloured complex is trapped by another Ab causing coloured line to appear
hCG-Ab-complex moves up the strip by diffusion

78
Q

What is the Elisa test?

A

A test that uses antibodies to detect the presence + amount of protein in a sample

79
Q

What is the enzyme in the Elisa test linked to?

A

Immunoasorbant assay

80
Q

What is the first step of the Elisa test?

A

Apply sample to surface
Antigens in sample attach to surface
WASH to remove any antigens that have not attached

81
Q

What is the second step of the Elisa test?

A

Add antibody that is specific to antigen you’re trying to detect
Leave to bind
RINSE to remove excess antibody

82
Q

What is the third step of the Elisa test?

A

Add second antibody that binds to first antibody
Second antibody has enzyme attached
WASH to remove excess antibody

83
Q

What is the final step of the Elisa test?

A 
Add substrate (colourless)
Enzyme acts on substrate
Substrate converted into coloured compound
Colour= positive test
84
Q

What is the prostate specific antigen?

A

Protein produced in prostate cancer

85
Q

Where are levels of PSA detected?

A

The blood

86
Q

How are monoclonal antibodies used in the treatment of PSA?

A

Antibodies interact with PSA

Measuring levels of antibodies allows you to estimate levels of protein present

87
Q

What are the ethical implications of monoclonal antibodies?

A

Use mice to generate antibodies + tumour cells
Deaths associated with antibodies
Drug testing can have high risks

88
Q

Do antibodies directly destroy antigens?

A

NO

89
Q

What is the structure of an antibody?

A 
Antigen binding site
Variable region 
Constant region
Heavy + short chains
Receptor binding site
90
Q

How many polypeptides does an antibody have?

A

4

91
Q

What is each binding site on an antibody complementary to?

A

A specific antigen

92
Q

What does it form when an antibody joins to an antigen?

A

Antigen-antibody complex

93
Q

What are poly clonal antibodies?

A

When each B cell divides to produce different antibodies

94
Q

What is a monoclonal antibody?

A

When a single type of antibody is cloned

95
Q

What are the two routes that B cells can take?

A

Primary and secondary response

96
Q

What is the primary response of B cells?

A

Cloned plasma cells produce antibodies complementary to antigens
Antibody attaches to antigen and destroys pathogen

97
Q

What is secondary response of B cells?

A

Some B cells remain and become memory cells

98
Q

Where do plasma cell secrete antibodies?

A

Into blood plasma

99
Q

How long can plasma cells survive for?

A

Only a few days

100
Q

How fast can plasma cells produce antibodies?

A

2000 antibodies/sec

101
Q

What do plasma cells destroy?

A

Pathogens + toxins

102
Q

What type of defence is a plasma cell?

A

Immediate defence

103
Q

What type of response is a plasma cell?

A

Primary response

104
Q

How long do memory cells survive for?

A

Decades

105
Q

Where do memory cells live?

A

Blood and tissues

106
Q

What type of immunity do memory cells provide?

A

Long term immunity

107
Q

Do memory cells produce antibodies directly?

A

NO

108
Q

Are memory cells better than plasma cells?

A

Yes because they are faster and more intense

109
Q

What type of response is a memory cell?

A

Secondary response

110
Q

What do memory cells allow your immune system to do?

A

Fight infection before any symptoms occur

111
Q

What are the two forms of immunity?

A

Passive

Active

112
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Antibodies introduced from outside source

113
Q

What is an example of passive immunity?

A

Anti-venom

Immunity acquired by a fetus from the mother

114
Q

Is passive long term?

A

NO since no primary or secondary immune response

115
Q

What is active immunity?

A

Production of antibodies stimulated by individuals

116
Q

Is active long term?

A

YES

117
Q

How does active immunity happen?

A

Direct contact with antigen

118
Q

What are the two types of active immunity?

A

Natural

Artificial

119
Q

What is natural active immunity?

A

Individual infected with a disease

120
Q

What does natural lead to?

A

Normal immune response

121
Q

What is artificial active immunity?

A

Vaccination

122
Q

What artificial lead to?

A

Induced immune response

123
Q

What are the ethics to do with vaccinations?

A

Animals used in development
Side effects
Who should it be tested on?
Compulsory?
Is it fair to test where target disease is common?
Should expensive programme continue for nearly eradicated diseases?

124
Q

How do you make vaccinations successful?

A 
Cheap
Few side effects
Administrated correctly at one time
Ability to produce, store + transport vaccine
Vaccinate majority of population
125
Q

What is herd immunity?

A

When a large enough proportion of a population is vaccinated, which makes it difficult for the pathogen to spread

126
Q

What does vaccinated people provide?

A

Measure of protection for those not immune

127
Q

When is vaccinations most successful?

A

When they are carried out at the same time

128
Q

Why do vaccinations sometimes not work?

A 
Already infected
Immuno defect
Pathogen mutated so antigens not recognised
Some pathogens "hide" inside of cells
Each pathogen has many varieties
129
Q

Describe an immune response

A

Phagocytes engulf pathogen
Activate T-cells which bind to comp antigens on phagocyte
Activates B-cells, which divide into plasma cells
Plasma cells make more antibodies complementary to antigen

A-Level Biology (21 decks)

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