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A-Level Biology > Cells > Flashcards

Cells Flashcards

1
Q

What organelles does the animal cell have?

A 
Nucleus
Plasma membrane
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Smooth endoplasmic recticulum
Mitochondria
Golgi apparatus
Vesicles
Rough endoplasmic recticulum
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2
Q

What makes up the animal cell’s nucleus?

A

Nuclear envelopes
Nucleolus
Nucleoplasm

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3
Q

What is the function of the nucleus?

A

Controls the cell and contains the genetic material

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4
Q

What is the structure of ribosomes?

A

Made of two sub units- one large and small

Contains ribosomal RNA and protein

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5
Q

What are the two types of ribosomes?

A

80S- Larger

70S- Smaller

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6
Q

What is the function of ribsomes?

A

Site of protein synthesis

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7
Q

What is the structure of mitochondria?

A

Double membrane

Strand of DNA

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8
Q

What are the outer and inner parts of the mitochondria membrane called?

A

Outer- matrix

Inner- cristae

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9
Q

What is the function of mitochondria?

A

Releases energy for the cell through respiration

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10
Q

What is the structure of the cell membrane?

A

Phospholipid bi-layer

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11
Q

What is the function of the cell membrane?

A

Controls what moves in and out of the cell

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12
Q

What is the structure of the RER?

A

Ribosomes are present

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13
Q

What is the function of the RER?

A

Site of protein synthesis

Transport of materials

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14
Q

What is the structure of golgi apparatus?

A

Stack of membranes containing vesicles

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15
Q

What is the function of golgi apparatus?

A

Transport, modify and store proteins and lipids from the ER

Produce lysosomes and secretory enzymes

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16
Q

What is the structure of SER?

A

No ribosomes

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17
Q

What is the function of SER?

A

Synthesise, store and transport lipids and carbohydrates

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18
Q

What is the function of cytoplasm?

A

Where chemical reactions happen for life to occur

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19
Q

What is the structure of lysosomes?

A

Contains up to 50 enzymes

Membrane

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20
Q

What is the function of lysosomes?

A

Remove useless/dangerous materials

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21
Q

What is the function of chloroplasts?

A

Help with photosynthesis

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22
Q

What is the function of the vacuole?

A

Keeps the cell rigid

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23
Q

What is the structure of the cell wall?

A

Made of cellulose

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24
Q

What is the function of the cell wall?

A

Provides the cell with strength and structure

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25
Q

What is a eukaryote?

A

A cell with a true nucleus with a nuclear envelope (membrane) surrounding chromosomes and membrane - bound organelles

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26
Q

What is a prokaryote?

A

A cell that lacks membrane- bound nucleus or any other membrane bound organelles

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27
Q

What type of DNA does prokaryotes have

A

Single stranded and circular DNA

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28
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic DNA to eukaryotic DNA?

A

It’s not stored in a nucleus and it;s not associated with histones

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29
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic organelles to eukaryotic organelles?

A

They aren’t membrane bound organelles

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30
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic ribosomes to eukaryotic ribosomes?

A

They have 70S ribosomes

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31
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic cell wall to eukaryotic cell wall?

A

Bacterial cell wall is made from murein whereas a eukaryote’s is made from cellulose

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32
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic capsule to eukaryotic capsule?

A

Some have them but eukaryotes don’t

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33
Q

What is the difference between prokaryotic size to eukaryotic size?

A

They are smaller

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34
Q

What is the size of a prokaryote?

A

0.1 to 5.0 nano meters

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35
Q

What is the size of a Eukaryote?

A

10 to 100 nano meters

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36
Q

Why is prokaryotic DNA more simple?

A

So it can multiply quicker and adapt to new environments quicker

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37
Q

How many nano meters in a millimetre?

A

1000

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38
Q

Why might bacterial cells evolved from mitochondria and chloroplasts?

A

Similar size and shape
70S ribosomes
Own strand of DNA

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39
Q

How do antibiotics work without harming your other cells?

A

They attack parts of bacterial cells that other cells don’t have, for example cell wall, 70S ribosomes and certain enzymes found in prokaryotes

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40
Q

What is the function of the capsule?

A

Protection

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41
Q

What is a virus?

A

A microscopic intracellular parasite organism that infects other organisms

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42
Q

What is the structure of a virus?

A 
CD4 proteins on surface
Phospholipid membrane
Matrix
Capsid
Viral RNA
Viral enzymes
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43
Q

What are the enzymes found in the virus?

A

Reverse transcriptase
Intergrase
Protease

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44
Q

What do viruses rely on to replicate?

A

Introducing their own DNA into the host cell

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45
Q

How do viruses replicate?

A

Enters bloodstream
Protein binds to CD4 on T-helper cells
Capsid fuses with cell membrane
RNA and enzymes enter T-helper cell
Reverse transcriptase converts virus RNA to DNA
DNA enters nucleus and inserts into host’s DNA
Creates mRNA using cells enzymes to make viral proteins
mRNA moves out through nuclear pores
Protein synthesis to make proteins
Breaks away from T-helper to infect other cells

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46
Q

What is magnification?

A

The act or process of enlarging the physical appearance or image of something

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47
Q

What is resolution?

A

The minimum distance apart two objects can be in order to appear as separate items

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48
Q

What are the three types of microscopes?

A

Light
Scanning electron
Transmission electron

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49
Q

What is the advantages and disadvantages of a light microscope?

A

Cheap -A
Easy to prepare -A
Poor resolution -D
Cannot see smaller organelles -D

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50
Q

What are the advantages of a TEM?

A

High resolution

High magnification

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51
Q

What are the disadvantages of a TEM?

A

Expensive
No colour/ 2D image
Stained with heavy metal
Vacuum

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52
Q

What are the advantages of a SEM?

A

3D image and colour
High magnification
High resolution

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53
Q

What are the disadvantages of a SEM?

A

Lower resolution than TEM
Stained with gold
Specimen must be dead
Vacuum

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54
Q

Why do electron microscopes have a better resolution?

A

Because they have a shorter wavelength

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55
Q

What is the equation for magnification?

A

Image/actual size

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56
Q

How do you get from mm to micrometers?

A

x1000

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57
Q

How do you get from micrometres to nano meters?

A

x1000

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58
Q

How do you find out the total magnification when using a microscope?

A

Magnification of eyepiece X magnification of objective lens

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59
Q

What is cell fractionation?

A

The process where cells are broken up and the different organelles they contain are separated out

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60
Q

What must a buffered solution?

A

Ice cold
Buffered (same pH)
Isotonic

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61
Q

Why must it be ice cold?

A

Slow down enzyme activity

62
Q

Why must it be buffered?

A

Maintain the same pH to prevent proteins from denaturing

63
Q

Why must it be isotonic?

A

Same water potential as cytoplasm to prevent osmosis

64
Q

What is a buffered solution used for?

A

The purpose of breaking open cells so that the organelles do not become damaged

65
Q

Describe the process of cell fractionation

A

Tissue is cut up and kept in cold, buffered solution
Further broken down by homogeniser
It is spun in an ultra-centrifuge at low speed for 10mins
Spun at medium speed
Spun at high speed

66
Q

Why is it filtered?

A

To remove debris, damaged organelles or non-broken down cells

67
Q

What is the cell cycle?

A

A regular cycle of cell division, separated by periods of cell growth

68
Q

What are the three main stages of cell division?

A

Interphase
Nuclear division
Cytokinesis

69
Q

What are the stages of the cell cycle?

A 
Growth of the cell
Synthesis of DNA 
DNA replication
Replication of organelles/prepare cell for cell division
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
70
Q

What is the equation for mitotic index?

A

No. of actively dividing cells in field view
———————————————————– X100
Total no. of cells in field view

71
Q

What is mitotic index?

A

The ratio between the number of cells in a population undergoing mitosis, to the total number of cells

72
Q

How do cancer treatments disrupt the cell cycle?

A

Prevent DNA from replicating

Inhibit metaphase, by inhibiting formation of spindle fibres

73
Q

What is the problem with cancer treatments?

A

It kills all rapidly dividing cells

74
Q

What are the stages of mitosis?

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

75
Q

What happens in prophase?

A

Nuclear membrane breaks down

Chromosomes condense and become visible

76
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

Chromosomes line up along the equator

Spindle fibres form

77
Q

What happens in anaphase?

A

Microtubles shorten pulling apart sister chromatid

Pulled to the poles

78
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

New nuclear membranes form

Chromosomes decondense = become larger, thinner + less visible

79
Q

What happens after mitosis?

A

Cytokinesis
Membrane divides
Two daughter cells
Have own nucleus

80
Q

What is binary fission?

81
Q

What are the stages of binary fission?

A

DNA replication
Segregation
Formation of membrane
New cell wall

82
Q

What happens in the DNA replication stage?

A

DNA uncoils and replicates

83
Q

What happens in the segregation stage?

A

Replicated DNA moves to opposite ends

Causes cell to elongate

84
Q

What happens in the formation of membrane stage?

A

The equatorial plate separates plasma membrane

85
Q

What happens in the new cell wall stage?

A

New cell wall separates it into two cells

86
Q

What is formed in binary fission?

A

Two genetically identical cells (clones)

87
Q

Why can bacteria divide easily?

A

No nuclear envelope
No membrane bound organelles
Free floating DNA
Single stranded DNA

88
Q

What are the similarities between binary fission and mitosis?

A 
Produce two identical daughter cells
Asexual
DNA pulled to poles
DNA replication
Cytokinesis
89
Q

What are the differences between binary fission and mitosis?

A

New cell wall doesn’t form in M
Spindle fibres don’t form in BF
New nuclear envelope doesn’t form in BF
Replication of plasmids doesn’t occur in M

90
Q

What does the majority of prokaryotic DNA contain?

A

Only one copy of each gene (haploid)

91
Q

What does the majority of eukaryotic DNA contain?

A

Two copies of each gene (diploid)

92
Q

Is there repetitive DNA in prokaryotes?

A

No because it is efficient and compact

93
Q

Where does prokaryotic DNA condense?

94
Q

Where does eukaryotic DNA condense?

95
Q

What is diffusion?

A

The net movement of particles from a high to low concentration, down a concentration gradient, until equilibrium is met

96
Q

What are the factors of diffusion?

A

Temperature
Surface area
Concentration gradient

97
Q

What is Fick’s law?

A

Rate of diffusion (directionally proportional sign)
SA X conc gradient
——————————
Lemgth of diffusion pathway

98
Q

What is the other type of diffusion?

A

Faciliated diffusion

99
Q

What does the graph look like for rate of faciliated diffusion plotted against conc of glucose?

A

It increases then plateaus

100
Q

Why does the graph plateau?

A

Because all carrier proteins have become saturated so the rate fo diffusion has reached its maximum point

101
Q

Why are faciliated diffusion different?

A

Because the ions/molecules have a specific shape so they travel through intinsic proteins that are specific to the certain molecules

102
Q

What are the similarities between faciliated diffusion and diffusion?

A

Passive

High to low concentration

103
Q

What is osmosis?

A

The movement of water molecules from a region of high water potential to a region of lower water potential, through a partially permeable memebrane

104
Q

What is water potential measured in?

105
Q

What is the water potential of water potential?

106
Q

How is water potential created?

A

The pressure created by water molecules

107
Q

What does a lower water potential reveal?

A

It is more concentrated

108
Q

Where will water always move to?

A

To the solution that is more negative (lower)

109
Q

What is the water potential when it is further from zero?

A

Lower water potential

110
Q

What is hypertonic?

A

Conc of solute in the solution surrounding the cell is high than inside of the cell

111
Q

What happens if you have a hypertonic condition?

A

Water moves out of the cell as the solution has a lower water potential

112
Q

What is isotonic?

A

Conc of solute in the solution surrounding the cell is the same as inside of the cell

113
Q

What happens if you have isotonic conditons?

A

No movement of water

114
Q

What is hyportonic?

A

Conc of solute in solution surrounding the cell is lower than inside of the cell

115
Q

What happens if you have hyportonic conditions?

A

Water moves into the cell as the solution inside of the cell has a lower water potential

116
Q

What happens to an animal cell in hypertonic conditions?

117
Q

What happens to an animal cell in hyportonic conditions?

118
Q

What happens to an animal cell in isotonic conditions?

119
Q

What happens to a plant cell in hypertonic conditions?

A

Plasmolyzed

120
Q

What happens to a plant cell in hyportonic conditions?

121
Q

What happens to a plant cell in isotonic conditions?

122
Q

Describe the cell membrane

A

It has a phospholipid bi-layer, that is free to move, and embedded glycoproteins

123
Q

What is the structure of the cell membrane like?

A

A mosaic of different components

124
Q

Is the cell membrane permeable?

A

Yes, it is relatively permeable

125
Q

What are molecules that can pass through the cell membrane?

A

Lipid- soluble substances
eg. O2 and CO2
Fatty acids

126
Q

What are molecules that can’t pass through the cell membrane?

A

Large molecules
eg. glucose
Water soluble ions
Polar (electronically charged molecules)

127
Q

Why can’t water soluble ions pass through the cell membrane?

A

Because of its hydrophobic tails

128
Q

What is the phospholipid bi-layer?

A

Overall structure and main barrier to prevent passage of certain molecules

129
Q

What is cholestrol?

A

Hydrophobic molecules that increases the strength of te membrane and reduces fluidity

130
Q

What is intrinsic proteins?

A

Transport across the membrane all the way through

131
Q

What is a glycolipid?

A

Lipid with a carbohydrate chain that helpes in cell recognition

132
Q

What is a glycoprotein?

A

Protein attached toa carbohydrate chain that helps in cell recognition

133
Q

What is active transport?

A

The movement of substances from a low to high concentration, against a conc gradient

134
Q

Describe active transport

A

Solute binds to carrier protein
ATP attaches to carrier protein + donates phosphate group
Addition of phosphate changes protein tertiary structure
Ion released + moves against conc gradient
Phosphate group leaves = proteins returns to original shape

135
Q

What are the main features of active transport?

A

Against conc gradient
Requires ATP from respiration
Requires carrier proteins

136
Q

What is a channel protein?

A

Water filled tubes

137
Q

What do channel proteins provide?

A

Hydrophillic channels for soluble + polar ions/molecules

138
Q

What processes are channel proteins involved in?

A

Facilitated diffusion

139
Q

What type of molecules do channel proteins open for?

A

Specific ions

140
Q

What processes are carrier proteins involved in?

A

Facilitated diffusion + active transport

141
Q

What do carrier proteins do?

A

Change shape to move molecules across the membrane

142
Q

What type of molecules do carrier proteins move?

A

Large specific molecules/ions

143
Q

Describe the sodium potassium pump

A

3 Na+ bind using ATP
Pi binds = changes shape of tertiary structure
3 Na+ released out of the cell
High affinity for K
2 K2+ bind
Pi dissociates = changes shape = 2 K2+ released into the cell

144
Q

What is co-transport?

A

The coupled movement of one molecules with its concentration gradient and another molecule against its conc gradient

145
Q

Describe co-transport (indirect active transport)

A

Na+ actively transported out of the cell using NA+K pump
High conc of Na+ inside lumen so lower conc in cell
Na+ diffuses (facilitated) using different transport protein
Transport protein also carriers glucose/amino acid

146
Q

What is the ileum?

A

Very end of the small intestine

147
Q

What moves through the ileum?

A

Products of digestion that are not absorbed and will be excreted

148
Q

How is the ileum adapted?

A

Has villi
Epithelial cells that line the cell wall have microvilli
So has a high SA

149
Q

Why is it important that the ileum has a high SA?

A

So there is more space on the membrane for insertion of channel/carrier proteins
So likelihood of saturation is decreased

150
Q

What are the cell adaptations?

A

Increased no. of channel/carrier proteins = less chance to be saturated
Increased SA = greater sized surface to cross
Increased mitochondria = release energy

A-Level Biology (21 decks)

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