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1
Q

Main components of eukaryotic cells and nucleus

A

surrounding outer membrane- double layer membrane that separates the cell from the env and communicates inside with outside
cytoplasm- cell contents in thick fluid
cytoskeleton- inside structure to keep shape
organelles- structures for specific cell functions
nucleus bound by membrane- control centre in DNA

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2
Q

nucleus structure

A

bordered by a porous double membrane - nuclear envelope
thin fibres of dna
protein - CHROMATIN
small round nucleolus - produces rRNA to make ribosomes

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3
Q

rRNA meaning

A

ribosomal RNA

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4
Q

Describe the structure of DNA double helix

A

DNA- nucleic acid
macromolecule
made up of two polynucleotide chains
each poly is many up of nucleotides
5 carbon sugar- deoxyribose
nitrogen containing bases - A+T, C+G
phosphate
2 strands joined by H bonds
nucleotides- cov linked via sugars
two strands wound into double helix
each strand= template for the other

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5
Q

genetic info function

A

directs the daily life of a cell
directs the development of the organism
accurately and continuously copies itself during cell division

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6
Q

how are the two strands held together

A

h bonds

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7
Q

what does each strand serve as for the other

A

a template

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8
Q

what enzyme is used in the process of dna replication

A

dna polymerase

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9
Q

during dna synthesis new nucleotides can only be added in which direction

A

3’ end

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10
Q

dna replication process

A

strands separate
new strand is made using each old strand as a template according to the rules of base pairing
two complete and identical double helices are produced
one old and one new strand

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11
Q

what are all living things made of

A

cells

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12
Q

main components of a eukaryotic cells and a nucleus

A
  • A surrounding outer membrane - double layer membrane that separates the cell from the environment and communicates the interior of the cell with the outside
  • Cytoplasm – cell contents in thick fluid
  • Cytoskeleton structure inside to keep its shape
  • Organelles – structures for specific cell functions
  • Nucleus bound by membrane - control centre with DNA
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13
Q

the nucleus- brain of the cell - structure

A
  • Bordered by a porous double membrane – nuclear envelope
  • Contains thin fibres of DNA and protein called chromatin
  • Contains a small round nucleolus which produces rRNA to make
    ribosomes (appears more dense), most cells have 2 or more
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14
Q

dna function

A
  • Genetic information:
  • Directs the daily life of a cell
  • Directs the development of an organism
  • Accurately and continuously copies itself during cell division
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15
Q

describe the structure of DNA

A

-double helix
-DNA is a nucleic acid.
-macromolecule + made up of two polynucleotide chains.
-each polynucleotide made up of nucleotides
-nucleotide- deoxyribose, nitrogen, base, phosphate group
-strands held together by H bonds
-nucleotides- covalently bonded
-wound into a double helix
-bases on the inside
-complimentary strands + bases
-strands serve as a template

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16
Q

dna replication process

A
  1. The strands separate. Hydrogen bonds are broken by
    enzyme helicase + uses ATP.
  2. A new strand is made using each old strand as a template - via base pairing rule. Using
    DNA polymerase.
  3. Two complete & identical double helices are produced.
  4. One old & one new strand in each.
17
Q

how does the structure of DNA enable genome duplication and cell division

A

Each strand contains sequence of nucleotides exactly complimentary to the sequence of the other strand. Each strand = template for the other strand. A-T, C-G. – comp base pairing = symmetrical structure

18
Q

polarity of DNA synthesis

A

linkage of nucleotides- chemical polarity
2 strands- antiparallel
dna synthesis- new nucleotide can only be added at 3’ prime
synthesis always from 5’ to 3’’ end
uses dna polymerase

19
Q

relevance of dna repair

A

dna- damaged by
-replication
-products of chemical reactions taking place in cells : env insults, radiation, UV
dna repair- if one strand needs repairing
lots of mechanisms developed
lots of enzymes/proteins used

20
Q

relevance of dna repair in general
PROCESS

A
  1. Recognise unusual DNA structures
  2. The unusual structure is removed
  3. Damage to one strand can be repaired using the complimentary strand as a template
    DNA double strand breaks (breaks in sugar-phosphate backbone) also occur and can lead to chromosomes
    breaking into smaller parts. They are more difficult to repair; two mechanisms:
  4. The broken ends are quickly put together (comes with errors!) – non-homologous end joining
  5. The other chromosome can be used as a template to mend the broken one (error-free) – homologous
    recombination.
    When the DNA is not repaired – cell cycle and/or cell death is activated. Can lead to mutations which cause
    genetic diseases/cancer
21
Q

describe how dna is packaged in the nucleus

A
22
Q

understand the difference between euchromatin and heterochromatin

A

chromatin structure- regulates access to dna
changes arrangement of nucleosomes of dna
more or less accessible sequences

EUCHROMATIN- less condensed, both active/inactive genes

HETEROCHROMATIN- v condensed, often no genes
if genes- INACTIVE

23
Q

the role of epigenetic modification in establishing cell fate and phenotype

A

Chromatin structure regulation = epigenetic regulation. Epigenetic modifications control nucleosome
arrangements, the chromatin state and therefore, gene activity.

  1. DNA methylation - Methyl marks added to certain DNA bases repress gene activity
  2. Histone modification - A combination of different molecules (methyl, acetyl) can attach to sticking out
    histone tails. alter the affinity of histones to DNA and activity of the DNA wrapped around
    them. form docking sites for other regulatory proteins.
24
Q

what are proteins

A

molecules that perform all functions required for life
two major categories - fibrous and globular
~10,000 types in the human body

25
Q

two major categories of proteins

A

fibrous proteins
globular proteins

26
Q

describe globular proteins

A

water soluble, many functions

27
Q

describe fibrous proteins

A

provide mechanical support

28
Q

what are proteins made from

A

amino acids
9 derived from the diet

29
Q

how many amino acids are commonly found

A

20

30
Q

function of collagen

A

provide support to the extracellular space of connective tissues

31
Q

what does a lack of vitamic c mean

A

scruvy - associated with gum diseases and skin problems

32
Q

what are the 4 levels of folding for proteins

A

primary
secondary
tertiary
quaternary

33
Q

what are polypeptides

A

proteins

34
Q

how are amino acids joined together and what do they form

A

peptide bonds
peptides/polypeptides4

ICT (13 decks)

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