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GCSE Geopgraphy > Ice On The Land > Flashcards

Ice On The Land Flashcards

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1
Q

What do glaciers do?

A

Erode, transport and deposit material.

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2
Q

What is a glacier?

A

A glacier is a long standing mass of ice that moves very slowly downhill.

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3
Q

What is the name given to the formation of glaciers?

A

Glaciation

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4
Q

What is the difference between a seasonal period and glacial period?

A

Seasonal periods last few months where as and interglacial period can last around several hundreds of thousands of years. We are in an interglacial period at the moment.

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5
Q

Explain how glaciers form

A

A glacier is a system with inputs (accumulation) and outputs (ablation).
The snow falls and becomes compacting, releasing air, turning firn into ice crystals.
The ice crystals become denser and become clearer glacial ice
Avalanches can also be a source of accumulation when they release snow
Ablation happens mostly at the snout of the glacier where the ice melts because it’s warmer
Calving is when ice breaks off at the snout
Another output is by evaporation or sublimation

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6
Q

Average movement of a glacier?

A

1-30m a day

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7
Q

Name some factors that affect the movement of a glacier.

A

Slope, snowfall and meltwater at the base of the glacier.

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8
Q

What is the internal deformation of ice?

A

When the weight of the ice deforms the crystals. This usually happens near the glacier bed where pressure is the highest.

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9
Q

What is a positive and negative budget?

A

If accumulation is larger than ablation this is a positive budget. This means the glacier will advance. This usually happens in winter or glacial periods. If ablation is greater than a accumulation, this is a negative budget and the glacier will retreat. This usually happens in summer or interglacial periods.

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10
Q

What is the glacial budget?

A

It is the balance between accumulation and ablation in a glacier. Its determines whether the glacier will advance or retreat.

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11
Q

Explain how glaciers move

A

The ice mass flows from the zone of accumulation and moves downslope like a fluid due to gravity and the internal deformation of ice. Meltwater at the base of a glacier acts as a lubricant for the ice to slide. This is basal sliding.

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12
Q

What is it short term glacial budget change?

A

Seasonal change

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13
Q

What is a long term glacial budget change?

A

Climate change (Ice ages, glacial and interglacial periods, etc.)

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14
Q

Thought human causes of climate change.

A

The industrial revolution and the introduction of machines and the burning of fossil fuels such as: oil contribute to the overall warming of the earth. The burning of coal releases greenhouse gases which acts as a blanket century trapping heat and stopping it returning to space.

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15
Q

Give some examples of natural causes of global temperature change.

A

The albedo effect means the whiteness of the surface of the earth. The white surface is (i.e. the more ice)The more sheet is reflected. The more the ice melts, the dark seawater will absorb heat instead causing the temperature to rise. Volcanic winter caused by Yellowstone volcano means ash will blackout the sun and cause global cooling.

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16
Q

Explain the process of freeze thaw weathering.

A

Water enters the joint or crack in a rock . Weather reaches below 0°C during night or winter. Water expands when frozen as it does this continuously in the crack, since the freezing and melting of the water is a repeated process, the rock breaks up.

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17
Q

Examples of human global temperature change causes.

A

Greenhouse gasses being emitted means energy is trapped. Carbon dioxide acts as a blanket for heat, preventing it from returning to space therefore heating up the air temperature.

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18
Q

What is weathering?

A

Weathering is the breakdown of rocks in situ

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19
Q

What are the three types of weathering?

A

Physical, chemical and biological

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20
Q

What is erosion?

A

Erosion is the wearing away of rock and its removal by streams, ice, waves and wind. Erosion, transportation deposition help shape the land.

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21
Q

Explain how an arête forms

A

An arête is a two-sided ridge on top of a mountain
It forms when erosion in two back to back corries causes the land in between to become even narrower, forming a sharp ridge

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22
Q

Explain how a corrie forms

A

A Corrie is an armchair shaped hollow with a steepened back wall.
Snow accumulates in a hollow and compacts into ice over thousands of years.
The glacial ice starts to flow downhill in a rotational slip, causing abrasion and the steepening of the back wall as the process of plucking rips the rock off.
Freeze-thaw weathering on the back wall adds more rock material to the glacier causing further abrasion at the base of the hollow, deepening it.
Where the gradient is less, erosion occurs less, forming a rock lip near the end of the glacier
When the glacial period has passed, and the corrie is left,a tarn can form in the hollow, which is a small lake.

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23
Q

Explain how a pyramidal peak forms

A

A pyramidal peak is a three sided slab of rock on the top of a mountain.
It forms when three or more corries erode backwards and meet
The glacier erodes the rock, causing steep, angular sides and a sharp, pointed summit
e.g. the Matterhorn

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24
Q

What is a ribbon lake?

A

Glacial erosion is uneven. Some rock is eroded more that others due to the strata. Soft rock erodes more and there is more moraine, the opposite occurs for hard rock. Water will fill the eroded flat rock in interglacial periods.

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25
Q

Explain the formation a glacial trough (U-shaped valley)

A

A glacial trough is a wide, steep-sided, flat-bottomed valley that has been eroded by a glacier
They are formed by a valley glacier that flows down a V shaped valley
As the glacier moves down the valley, it plucks and abrades the base and sides of the valley
The subglacial moraine in the glacier widens and deepens the valley floor
Truncated spurs also form (*if 6 mark Q, explain formation of truncated spurs too)

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26
Q

Explain the formation of a ribbon lake

A

A ribbon lake is a long and narrow lake in the floor of a U-shaped valley
It is formed when a glacier moves over soft and hard rock
The hard rock does not erode as quickly but where there is soft rock, the glacier will easily erode the floor making it deeper than the shallow walls, forming a rock basin.
When the glacier retreats, the melted water collects in the bottom of the U-shaped valley, forming a long narrow lake.

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27
Q

What is the competence of a glacier?

A

It’s ability to carry material.

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28
Q

What is a misfit stream?

A

A misfit stream is a small, narrow river which flows through the glacial valley floor.
Its small size is out of proportion with the large scale of the valley
They are formed in an inter-glacial period and did not erode the valley

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29
Q

What is scree?

A

Material that has been deposited, weathered or eroded. Deposits of angular rock fragments found at the foot of rocky features. Scree itself is not a landform.

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30
Q

Human uses of ribbon lakes?

A

Skiing, sailing and fishing.

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31
Q

Explain the formation of truncated spurs

A

Truncated spurs are higher areas on the straight rocky sides of the glaciated, U-shaped valley
At the snout of the glacier, bulldozing occurs and the former interlocking spurs of the V-shaped valley are bulldozed through
This is aided with the processes of abrasion and plucking, forming truncated spurs at the sides of the valley

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32
Q

Chamonix winter attractions

A 
Skiing, snowboarding
Mountain climbing 
Ice skating 
Sledging 
Spas
Access to slopes via cog railways or cable cars
Museums 
60,000 tourists
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33
Q

Chamonix summer attractions

A 
40km of mountain bike roads
350km of hiking trails
Canoeing, rafting
Helicopter flights
Bird watching 
Mer de Glace - it is the largest glacier in France (7km long, 200m at its deepest point and you can go inside it with access via the Montenvers railway
100,000 tourists
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34
Q

Positive social impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

Improvement in transport and health care
Job availability
Locals supplied with good facilities and activities
Clean, safe pedestrianised streets

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35
Q

Positive economic impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

Local employment - 2500 people work as seasonal workers every year in the tourism industry
Helps local businesses - Compagnie du Mont Blanc is a company that runs ski lifts and rail transport
Good for local economy

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36
Q

Positive environmental impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

The environment is well cared for
Local animals are protected by organisations
There are schemes to keep slopes and woodland areas nice

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37
Q

Negative social impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

Narrow roads get congested
Towns get crowded and noisy
Conflict between tourists and locals/tourists
Big, loud events at night
Big tourism activities causing noise
Tourist developments e.g. ski slopes have an increased risk of avalanches - more deaths from avalanches e.g. in 1999 an avalanche killed 12 people

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38
Q

What is an avalanche?

A

A rapid downhill movement of a mass of snow, ice and rocks, usually in a mountainous environment. They move at speeds of up to 300km/h.

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39
Q

Negative economic impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

Local services and shops expensive for locals
Jobs are temporary
Expensive property
Property can be damaged by tourists
Animal gates left open, affects farmers livelihoods

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40
Q

Negative environmental impacts of Chamonix tourism

A

Large number of tourists cause a lot of traffic which increases pollution - a study from 2002 to 2004 showed that traffic pollution was worse in the Chamonix region than in the centre of Paris
Mountain footpath erosion
Farm animal gates left open - harm to animals
Litter can end up in the glacier - glass bottles are a safety hazard
A huge amount of energy is used to run the facilities for tourists e.g. the hotels, ski lifts and snow-making machines - increases CO2 emissions, which increases global warming

41
Q

Causes of avalanches

A

Heavy snowfall - adds weight to snow, creating layers, making slab avalanches more likely
Tree removal - trees help to stop avalanches
Heavy rainfall - lubricates slope
Temperature rise - sudden rise in temperature can cause melting (lubricates slope) and this can lead to avalanches in spring
Human factors - off piste skiing, people ski in areas of fresh snow that haven’t been assessed for avalanche risk
Steep slopes - avalanches are most likely at 30-45°

42
Q

How are avalanches managed?

A

Walls and fences - impede avalanches
Afforestation - trees impede avalanches
Gully - controls and makes a path for the avalanche towards the avalanche shed
Avalanche shed - collects snow from avalanche
Wedge - curves snow around pylons
Large, flat urban-free areas - space for snow to deposit

43
Q

Negative social effects of avalanches

A

People die
Power lines can be brought down, no electricity
Mountains close
People can face criminal charges

44
Q

Negative environmental effects of avalanches

A

Trees uprooted

Biodiversity disrupted

45
Q

Negative economic effects of avalanches

A

Ski resorts lose customers and tourism
Rebuilding
Flights cancelled

46
Q

Immediate avalanche responses

A

Helicopters locate survivors

47
Q

What is sustainable management?

A

Management approaches that conserve the environment for future generations.

48
Q

What are fragile environments?

A

Environments that are easily unbalanced and damaged by natural or human factors. Alpine environments are fragile environments and need careful, sustainable management

49
Q

Long term avalanche responses

A 
Rules are stricter
Skiers made to wear Avalanche transceiver 
Instructors warn skiers 
Rescue is free
More equipment
50
Q

How are drumlins formed?

A

The competence of the glacier is low Because it is filled with sediment which encourages deposition of sediment. Melting glaciers meets small obstacles and deposits Boulder clay creating the stoss end because Ice deposits more sediment when facing up valley. The glacier continues to move and the Boulder clay Moulded into shape around the obstacle, creating the lee end.

51
Q

What are adaption strategies in fragile environments?

A

Maintain ski tourism - artificial snow, develop on higher terrain, change slope design
Subsidies - annual or single government contributions.
Alternatives to ski tourism - non-snow related winter activities, all year tourism
Fatalism - carry on as usual or cancel ski tourism.

52
Q

How are drumlins formed?

A

A drumlin is an egg-shaped hill made from boulder clay (till). They usually occur together as a swarm
When the competence of the glacier is low, this encourages deposition of sediments
The melting glacier meets small obstacles which are enough to encourage deposition of boulder clay from the ice at the side of the obstacle, facing up-valley. This forms the stoss end
As the glacier continues to move, the boulder clay at the bottom of the glacier is moulded into shape around the obstacle. This forms the lee end.
Over time, the drumlin is re-shaped by further ice movements

53
Q

Label drumlin:

A 
Made of till
Usually found in swarms
No core sediment 
Always longer than wide 
Creates basket of eggs scenery
0.5 km width
Steep, stoss end
Gentle, lee slope
400m-1km long
54
Q

What is abrasion?

A

A process of erosion in which rocks carried in the bottom of the ice wear away the surface rock over which the ice passes, leaving behind scratches and striations on the rock

55
Q

Why does Chamonix need management? (economic reasons)

A

40% less snow in the areas under 1000m above sea level over the last 50 years - higher pressure on high altitude ski slopes
15% of French ski areas are covered by snow canons to preserve summer skiing - in some areas, snow-making consumes more power than an entire ski lift system as the water to create artificial snow needs to be cooled down to 10 degrees + requires as much water as a town with 170,000 inhabitants
Winter sports industry is worth £64 bn per year - a loss of income would have widespread economic impacts in the region
Due to unreliable source of income, banks in Switzerland have refused to lend money to resorts below an altitude of 1500m
Cost of maintenance of cable-car stations and ski lift masts due to increased risk of landslides

56
Q

Why does Chamonix need management? (environmental reasons)

A

Accumulation of fresh snow has halved in the past 40 years - Mer de Glace has lost 65m in depth and 300m in length in the last 20 years
15% of French ski areas are covered by snow canons to preserve summer skiing - noise and visual pollution + cooling agent Snomax is added which can pollute the local environment
Cigarette litter - toxins contaminate water
Hotels have an inefficient use of energy - large carbon footprint and surrounding hillside is eroded as more hotels are built
High use of private vehicles, difficult to arrive by rail as no direct service from closest airport - source of 80% of carbon emissions in Chamonix
The Alps is the source of three main rivers of Europe: the Rhine, the Rhone and the Po - Glacial retreat will lead to unreliable fresh water supply in the region (social)
Global warming leads to melting of the permafrost, increasing the risk of landslides

57
Q

What are management strategies in Chamonix?

A

1) Espace Mont Blanc - encourages tourists not to litter, there are recycling points around the valley + they have a blog that reports environmental news, raising awareness of the green agenda, encouraging responsible tourism
2) Some hotels are now using low-energy lighting, limiting water use, providing recycling bins for guests, refurbishing using locally-sourced materials, geothermal energy for heating and installing solar panels - reducing their carbon footprint
3) Improving public transport reducing use of private vehicles - free shuttle service, all buses are fitted with particle filters to further reduce air pollution
4) Tomorrows Valley: initiative with the local community that plans for sustainable management to minimise environmental impact - preserves natural wetland and bogs, plants trees, maintains and way marks footpaths, cleans rivers, supports farming
5) Chamonix Municipality - provides clean energy buses to make the transport service in Chamonix more environmentally friendly

58
Q

What are the negative about the management strategies in Chamonix? ( useful for a ‘discuss’ question)

A

They are still lacking in a rail improvement strategy

One strategy is to cover glaciers with synthetic carpet made of reflective material to reduce surface melting - relatively ineffective strategy as they can only protect the glaciers temporarily

59
Q

Location of the Athabasca glacier

A

State of Alberta in West Canada, in the Canadian rockies

60
Q

Some facts about the Athabasca glacier

A

6km long, 6km2 area, one of the most visited glaciers in the world because of its proximity to a major highway (Icefields Parkway)

61
Q

Causes of retreat of the Athabasca Glacier

A

The glacier has been melting since the middle of the 19th century, long before human-caused climate change becomes significant. After 1920 human influence rose steadily. Currently, the human contribution to glacier melt is about two-thirds. Throughout the 21st century the human contribution is suspected to increase even more.

62
Q

Evidence of retreat of the Athabasca Glacier over time

A

It has receded 1500m from the furthest recorded extent and currently has a negative glacial budget
It has retreated about 200m since 2002
The glacier was over 100m less thick in 2002 than 1906
It is melting faster than it has been in the past 40 years
It used to flow past Sunwapta Lake but is now further back
The Parks Canada agency have placed markers on the walk up to the glacier, showing where the snout of the glacier reached in previous years - shows visitors just how quickly the glacier is retreating

63
Q

Evidence for climate change from the Athabasca Glacier

A

Only recently started retreating extremely quickly
In accordance with the rise of greenhouse gas emissions
Has retreated in time with the wolds rising temperatures
* But has been retreating before human influences therefore not enough evidence for global warming

64
Q

Economic impacts of unreliable snowfall

A

Making artificial snow, 15% of French ski resorts are covered by snow canons - in some resorts, making snow consumes more power than running ski lifts
If skiing is the main attraction, when there is too little snow it can be unsafe or not possible to ski. If there is too much snow, slopes are unstable increasing the possibility of an avalanche - both reduce tourists numbers

65
Q

Social impacts of unreliable snowfall

A

European resorts have experienced a decrease in precipitation over the past five years - some resorts have had to stringently control their water supply in order to conserve supplies
The chemical additives used in snow-making affect the drinking water for resorts
People losing jobs, have to move elsewhere§

66
Q

Environmental impacts of unreliable snowfall

A

40% less snow in the areas under 1000m above sea level over the last 50 years - led to greater pressure on high-altitude ski slopes, which are environmentally sensitive areas ( fragile alpine environments)
The chemical additives used in snow-making affect the natural vegetation

67
Q

Economic impacts of glacial retreat

A

Lower ski resorts shutting down
Once a glacier has completely retreated, the amount of meltwater decreases - the industries that rely on the supply of meltwater e.g. agriculture for irrigation and HEP for electricity production, will make less money and could shut down

68
Q

Social impacts of glacial retreat

A

The Alps is the source of three main rivers of Europe; the Rhine, the Rhone and the Po. Glacial retreat will lead to unreliable freshwater supply to the region
Distributions to power supplies from HEP could leave some people with an unreliable power
If businesses shut down, local people will have to move away to find work
If an area’s population declines, local services and recreational facilities will also shut down
The ice will no longer be available for local people e.g. for trekking and ice climbing

69
Q

Environmental impacts of glacial retreat

A

Increase in natural hazards - rapid melting can cause flooding, rockslides and avalanches. These hazards destroy habitats and disrupt food chains
Meltwater from retreating glaciers contributes to rising sea level which destroys coastal habitats by causing flooding and erosion
Lots of fish species are adapted to live in cold meltwater that comes from glaciers - when the glaciers have completely melted, there’s no cold meltwater so these fish species may die out
Harmful pollutants can be trapped in glacial ice e.g. the pesticide DDT that was used from the 1940s to 1980s - rapid melting releases them into the environment, polluting streams and lakes

70
Q

What are the impacts of global warming on winter tourism in the alps?

A

Unemployment for local people
Small businesses closing
Even if ski resorts decide to move higher up the mountain, then the negative impacts on tourism may become bigger just in specific areas

71
Q

Where are rates of abrasion highest?

A

Where there is a large amount of debris in the glacier
Where the ice is thick so there is more pressure
Where the rock debris is more resistant than the bedrock

72
Q

What is plucking?

A

A process of erosion in which blocks of rock are torn away from the bedrock as the ice moves away

73
Q

Where are rates of plucking highest?

A

Where the bedrock is well-jointed
Where there are large amounts o meltwater
Where the ice is thick so there is more friction

74
Q

How does ice transport material?

A

Ice transports material supraglacially, subglacially or englacially. The material that it carries has been eroded by plucking, bulldozing and abrasion and weathered by freeze-thaw weathering

75
Q

What is lateral moraine?

A

Material carried and deposited on the sides of the glacier

76
Q

What is medial moraine?

A

Material carried and deposited in the centre of the glacier

77
Q

What is terminal moraine?

A

Material found at the very end of the glacier

78
Q

What is ground moraine?

A

A thin layer of material depositied over a large area as the glacier melts

79
Q

What is subglacial moraine?

A

Material carried along the base of the glacier

80
Q

What is bulldozing?

A

When the ice pushes loose material in front of it

81
Q

What is rotational slip?

A

Rotational slip is when ice is trapped in hollows or depressions high up on the valley sides are unable to move downhill. Gravity will therefore encourage it to move in a circular movement

82
Q

What is basal sliding?

A

When the huge pressure and weight of ice causes a temperature rise at the base of the glacier leading to melting, which produces a great deal of meltwater. This lubricates the underside of the glacier enabling it to slide downhill

83
Q

Why does deposition by glaciers occur?

A

When the ice carrying the material melts, the material is left behind on the valley floor
It also occurs when the glacier has reached its carrying capacity

84
Q

How does glacial ice form?

A

Snowflakes –> granular snow –> firn –> glacial ice

85
Q

What is a corrie glacier?

A

A process called rotational slip causes the ice to retreat from the back wall, creating a crevasse (forming a corrie)

86
Q

What is a valley glacier?

A

Streams of flowing ice in steep-walled, U-shaped valleys

87
Q

What is an ice sheet?

A

A mass of glacier ice covering an area of land over 50,000km2

88
Q

What is an ice cap?

A

A mass of glacier ice covering an area of land less than 50,000km2

89
Q

What is an ice age, when was the last ice age called and when was it?

A

Ice ages are cold periods that last for millions of years when large masses of ice cover parts of the Earth’s surface Pleistocene that began around 2.6m years ago

90
Q

What are glacial periods and how long do they last?

A

Cooler periods when the ice advances to cover more of the Earth’s surface. Each one lasts about 100,000 years

91
Q

What are interglacial periods and how long do they last?

A

Warmer periods when the ice retreats to cover less of the Earth’s surface. Each one lasts around 10,000 years

92
Q

When was the last glacial period?

A

It began around 100,000 years ago and ended around 10,000 years ago

93
Q

What was the extent of maximum ice cover in the northern hemisphere during Pleistocene?

A

Around 20,000 years ago 30% of the Earth’s land surface was covered by ice
70m km3 of ice over North America, Europe and Asia

94
Q

What is the present ice cover?

A

About 10% of the Earth’s land surface is covered by ice

The only ice sheets are the ones in Greenland and Anarctica

95
Q

What three main sources of evidence for changing global temperatures?

A

Chemical evidence, geological evidence and fossil evidence

96
Q

What is the chemical evidence for changing global temperatures?

A

The chemical composition of ice and marine sediments change as temperature changes, so they can be used to work out how global temperature has changed in the past. Ice and sediments build up over thousands of years so samples taken at different depths show the temperature over thousands of years.
The records show a pattern of increasing and decreasing temperature, which caused the ice to advance and retreat.

97
Q

What is the geological evidence for changing global temperatures?

A

Some landforms we can see today were created by glaciers in the past - this shows that areas that aren’t covered in ice today were covered in the past, which means temperatures were lower

98
Q

What is the fossil evidence for changing global temperatures?

A

The remains of some organisms are preserved when they die, creating fossils.
Fossils show the distribution of plants and animals that are adapted to warm or cold climates at different times in the past - from this we can tell which areas were warmer or colder in the past

GCSE Geopgraphy (11 decks)

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