- Long, unbranched paired polymer chains, formed of same four types of monomers

IA - Cell and Genomes Flashcards by IVAN Dyan

the study of the structure, function, and behavior of cells

Cell biology

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distinguishes life from other processes, in which orderly structures are generated but without the same type of link between the peculiarities of parents and the peculiarities of offspring

Heredity

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The linear chemical code that store hereditary information

DNA

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where do all cells store hereditary information

DNA

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Description of DNA

Long, unbranched paired polymer chains, formed of same four types of monomers

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All Cells Replicate Their Hereditary Information by …?

Templated polymerization

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nucleotide, consists of two parts: a sugar (deoxyribose) with a phosphate group
attached to it, and a base

Monomers

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two parts of monomers

Sugar with phosphate group
Base

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DNA to RNA

Transcription

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RNA to Protein

Translation

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The intermediary form of all cells

RNA

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molecules that guide the synthesis of proteins according to the genetics instructions stored in the DNA

mRNA

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monomer of proteins

amino acids

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How many types of amino acids?

20 types

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carry information in the form of a linear sequence of symbols

proteins

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Protein molecules are created by

joining its amino acid in a particular sequence

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a segment of DNA sequence corresponding to a single protein or set of alternative protein variants or to a single catalytic regulatory, or structural RNA molecule

gene

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regulates the expression of genes, which are interpersed among the segments that code for proteins

Regulatory DNA

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each cell is enclosed by….
- acts as selective barrier

plasma membrane

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consisting of a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic parts,
creating a bilayer

Amphiphilic

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largely determine which molecules enter the cell

membrane transport proteins

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the number of genes for a viable cell

not less than 300

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530 genes, about 400 of which are essential

Mycoplasma genitalium (italicize)

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DNA sequence of any given organism can be readily obtained by

standard biochemical techniques

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feeding on other living things or the organic chemicals they produce

organotrophic

feeding on sunlight

phototrophic

feeding on rock

lithotrophic

Elements composed by DNA, RNA, and proteins

-H, C, N, S, P

live mostly as independent individuals or in loosely organized communities, rather than as multicellular organisms

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotic cells live in an enormous variety of

Ecological niches

Primary branches of Tree of life

- Bacteria, Archea, Eukaryotes

Two groups that belongs to prokaryotes

- Bacteria and archea

have recently revealed that the first eukaryotic cell formed after a particular type of ancient archaeal cell engulfed an ancient bacterium

Detailed genome analyses

may represent a change for the better or cause serious damage

Alterations of nucleotide sequence

example of alterations of nucleotide sequence

Mutations (changes in DNA sequence)

evolution of organisms

mutations and natural selection

How many genes does most bacteria and Archaea have?

1000-6000 genes

cells that can reproduce the fastest

prokaryotic cells

what does most prokaryotic cells carry?

Very little superfluous baggage

Four modes of genetic innovation

1. Intragenic mutation 2. Gene Duplication 3. DNA segment shuffling 4. Horizontal gene transfer

an existing cell can be randomly modified by changes in its dna sequence

Intragenic mutation

an existing cell can be randomly modified by changes in its dna sequence

Intragenic mutation

existing gene can be accidentally duplicated as to create a pair of initially identical gene within a single cell

Gene Duplication

two or more existing gene and break and rejoin to make a hybrid gene consisting of dna segment that originally belong to separate gene

DNA segment shuffling

- usually done by prokaryotes - a piece of dna can be transferred from one genome of one cell to that of another

Horizontal gene transfer

give rise to families of related genes within a single cell

Gene Duplications

genes that are related by descent

orthologs

related genes that resulted from a gene duplication event

paralogs

infects bacterial cells and can transfer genome to bacteria

bacteriophage

the transfer of genetic material from parent to offspring

Vertical gene transfer

two complementary approaches in the analysis of gene functions

- Genetics - Biochemistry

study of mutant

Genetics

function of molecules

biochemistry

molecular biology begin with a spotlight on what organism - small, rod shaped bacteria

E. coli (Escherichia coli)

Adaptation and evolution of E. coli

- Adapts to variable chemical conditions and reproducers rapidly - Evolve by mutation and selection at remarkable speed

Genetic Information of Eukaryotes

Eukaryotic cells - may have originated as predators - originated as predators - modern eukaryotic cells evolve from symbiosis - Eukaryotic genomes are bug - Live as solitary cell

are bigger and more elaborate than prokaryotic cells, and their genomes are bigger and more elaborate, too.

Eukaryotic Cells

where do eukaryotic cells keep their DNA?

In the nucleus

by definition, act as a barrier that separates the contents of the nucleus from the cytoplasm.

Nuclear envelope

Importance of cytoskeleton

important for cell division

life of a primordial cell that was a predator

living by capturing other cells and eating them

What is the term used to describe the way of life of a primordial cell that survived by capturing and consuming other cells?

Predatory lifestyle.

How did primordial predatory cells obtain nutrients?

By capturing and eating other cells.

Organelle that was considered as different identity as they have their own genome

Mitochondria and Chloroplast

What organism did Mitochondria originated

Free-living oxygen-metabolizing (aerobic) bacteria

originated as symbiotic photosynthetic bacteria

Chloroplast

provides energy to eukaryotic cells

chloroplast

percentage of human genome that do not code for proteins

~98.5%

percentage that E. coli genome do not for proteins

11%

can also be a regulatory DNA

Introns

act by binding, directly or indirectly, to the regulatory DNA adjacent to the genes that are to be controlled, or by interfering with the abilities of other proteins to do so

Transcription regulators

Serves as a minimal model for eukaryotes

Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) - reproduce vegetatively

has been chosen out of 300,000 plant species as a model plant

Arabidopsis

Arabidopsis thaliana (italicized) - can be grown indoors

Thale creds

genome size of Arabidopsis thaliana

approx. 220 million nucleotide pairs

why was arabidopsis a model plant?

- possesses a relatively small, genetically tractable genome - manipulated through genetic engineering more easily and rapidly than any other plant genome

organisms that represent the world of animal cells

-Worm -Fly -Fish -Mouse -Human

Which nematode worm species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies?

Caenorhabditis elegans (italicized)

Which nematode worm species is a model organism in genetic research?

Caenorhabditis elegans (italicized)

Which fly species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies?

Drosophila melanogaster (italicized)

Which zebrafish species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies?

Danio rerio (italicized)

Which zebrafish species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies?

Danio rerio (italicized)

Which mouse species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies?

Mus musculus (italicized)

Which human species is a model organism in molecular genetic studies? (Halata na to)

Homo sapiens (italicized)

What does Drosophila provide?

key to vertebrate development - definitive proof that genes are carried on chromosomes

is a product of repeated duplications

Vertebrate genome

Commonly used in studying embryonic development

frogs

why is the frog used to for embryonic development?

Eggs are large, easy to manipulate, and fertilized outside of the animal

Provide accessible models for vertebrate development

- Frogs - Zebrafish

the predominant mammalian model organism

Mouse

% amino acid identical between human and elephant

85%

% amino acid similarity between human and bird

70%

why mouse as model organism?

-many naturally occurring mutations are known -have same biological features as human