Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Question 1

Chapter 1: Never Such Innocence Again.

What is the author’s view on the existence of moral law and progress in the contemporary world?

What evidence does he provide to support his position? (He cites..?)

• The author is s……. about the existence of m…. law and p……. in the contemporary world.
• He cites the rejection of moral law by intellectuals and the events of the past century, such as wars and genocides, as evidence against their existence.
• The author also notes that the constant media coverage of events tends to d………. people to their gravity, making it easier to forget them in the endless news cycle.

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 1

• The author is sceptical about the existence of moral law and progress in the contemporary world.
• He cites the rejection of moral law by intellectuals and the events of the past century, such as wars and genocides, as evidence against their existence.
• The author also notes that the constant media coverage of events tends to desensitize people to their gravity, making it easier to forget them in the endless news cycle.

Question 2

Chapter 1: Never Such Innocence Again.

Question 2: What is the author’s perspective on the shift in philosophical ethics from theoretical ethics to applied ethics?

Ethics should grounded in..?

The Enlightenment’s confidence in … was ..?

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 2

• The author believes that the shift from theoretical ethics to applied ethics is essential, as it puts human concerns at the forefront of philosophical inquiry.
• He argues that ethics should be more empirical and grounded in the real world rather than abstract theories.
• The author notes that the Enlightenment’s confidence in rationality’s ability to eliminate war and cruelty was misguided, as evidenced by the events of the past century.
• The author believes that it is essential to examine the spiritual darkness in human beings to prevent it from manifesting in destructive ways.

Question 3

Chapter 2: Nietzsche’s Challenge

What is Friedrich Nietzsche’s perspective on morality and self-creation, and how does it differ from traditional religious morality?

Nietzsche valued s…-c……. and r……. any au……. that might re…… that pr…..

He believed life lacked i…….. m…… and the s…-c…… man must create his own m…… if he has the s……. .

He had a controversial view of..? (w / al / the w)

He saw the collapse of rel……mor…… as in…… and believed traditional morality needed to be sw… as… .

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 3

• Nietzsche valued self-creation and rejected any authority that might restrain that project.
• He believed that life lacks intrinsic meaning, and the self-created man must create his own meaning if he has the strength.
• Nietzsche held a controversial view of women, altruism, and the weak, arguing that they are born to perish and that brilliant souls of self-created aristocrats may exterminate lesser men at will.
• Nietzsche saw the collapse of religious morality in the twentieth century as inevitable and believed that traditional religious morality needed to be swept away.

Question 4

Chapter 2: Nietzsche’s Challenge

How does the author of the book view Nietzsche’s perspective on self-creation, and what criticism does he have of Nietzsche’s views?

The author of the book accepts..?
However, the author rejects ..?
The author questions how to deal with the ‘Ni……. am…. s…….’ who might use his …….. to …….. others.

The author emphasizes the importance of finding a way to s…-c….. without harming others or submitting to cruelty.

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 4

• The author of the book accepts Nietzsche’s views on religion and the importance of self-creation.
• However, the author rejects Nietzsche’s particular recipe for self-creation, arguing that values other than cruel domination exist and can become one’s self-program.
• The author questions how to deal with the Nietzschean amoral superman who might use his strength to dominate others.
• The author emphasizes the importance of finding a way to self-create without harming others or succumbing to cruelty.

Question 5

Chapter 3: Self-Interest as a Restraint

How do amoralists, or those who reject moral rules, still have strong motivations to behave well?

S I / Re al / ‘Pr Di’

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 5

• Self-interest often dictates fitting in and behaving well.
• Reciprocal altruism can incline others to assist you.
• The best strategy in situations resembling the simple dual prisoner’s dilemma is often tit-for-tat.

Question 6

Chapter 3: Self-Interest as a Restraint

How can social pressure and cultural norms affect moral behavior, and when can they fail as a moralizing force? Ring..?

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 6

• Social pressure and the appearance of moral conviction can influence behavior, even if there is no actual moral conviction.
• Gyges’s ring from Plato’s Republic is used to illustrate how being free from social pressure can unleash one’s true values
• When Gyges wears giant’s ring, becomes invisible. Moving unseen, becomes member of royal court, seduces queen and murders king, taking throne.
• A mixed strategy of appearing good while maintaining a private dissenting opinion may be effective.
• Social pressure can fail as a moralizing force when a culture goes awry and pressures others towards immorality, such as in the examples of the Nazis and the Chinese cultural revolution.

Question 7

Chapter 4: The Moral Resources: Humanity.

What are the roots of moral restraint?

• Moral restraint has roots in h_ r_ and s_ .
• Respect acknowledges the essential d_ of another.
• Sympathy grows from human drives to b_ and extends to s_.
• Personal suffering may expand one’s c_ for s_ .

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 7

• Moral restraint has roots in human respect and sympathy.
• Respect acknowledges the essential dignity of another.
• Sympathy grows from human drives to belong and extends to strangers.
• Personal suffering may expand one’s capacity for sympathy.

Question 8

Chapter 4: The Moral Resources: Humanity.

What does “humanity” mean in the context of morality?

“Humanity” means to..?
Not all humans..?
Humanity is essential for..?
Humanity acknowledges the essential ..?

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 8

• “Humanity” means to respond to others with respect and sympathy.
• Not all humans exhibit humanity.
• Humanity is essential for moral restraint.
• Humanity acknowledges the essential dignity of another and extends sympathy to strangers.

Question 9

Chapter 5: The Moral Resources: Moral Identity

What is the importance of moral identity (self) in self-restraint?

• Part of self-restraint derives from the task of b_ the p_ you i_ yourself to be.
• Socrates argued that happiness springs from int_ int_ .
• Moral identity provides a basis for e_ b_ .
• No single basis for ethics s_ .

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 9

• Part of self-restraint derives from the task of becoming the person you imagine yourself to be.
• Socrates argued that happiness springs from internal integration.
• Moral identity provides a basis for ethical behavior.
• No single basis for ethics suffices.

Question 10

Chapter 5: The Moral Resources: Moral Identity

What is the significance of the moral gap between insiders and outsiders (illustrated by an Athenian conquest)?

Might..?

No need to ..?

Er….. and pl….r are ok?

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 10

• The moral gap between what we will do for insiders and for outsiders explains much cruelty.
• Conquest of Melos - ‘might is right’
• Conquest of Melos - ‘no need to negotiate’
• Conquest of Melos - ‘erasure and plundering are ok’

Glover recounts the Athenian conquest of their small neighbor, Melos, in Thucydides’s history. Athens argued that might makes right, Melos offered neutrality and warned about Athens’s own future need for fair play were they to be defeated. Athens destroyed Melos.

Question 11

Chapter 6: The Festival of Cruelty

What underlies human beings capacity for cruelty?

• Humans have a deep m……… that seeks c…… under certain circumstances.
• Emotional d……….. can drive individuals to cruelty.
• Restraints on cruelty can be o……., and moral identity can e…. .
• Dehumanization includes “…. ….. ,” which bring black humor to cruelty, but our best sentiments can break through the intention to be cruel, and it may be possible to overcome the impulse to cruelty in humans.

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 11

• Humans have a deep motivation that seeks cruelty under certain circumstances.
• Emotional deficiencies can drive individuals to cruelty.
• Restraints on cruelty can be overcome, and moral identity can erode.
• Dehumanization includes “cold jokes,” which bring black humor to cruelty, but our best sentiments can break through the intention to be cruel, and it may be possible to overcome the impulse to cruelty in humans.

Question 12

Chapter 6: The Festival of Cruelty

What is the story told by Glover in Chapter 6 of “Humanity: A Moral History of the Twentieth Century,” and what does it demonstrate about human cruelty?

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 12

• Glover tells the story of a South African Afrikaner policeman who intends to beat a woman.
• The woman loses her shoe, and the officer picks it up and returns it to her.
• This unexpected act of kindness restores the woman’s humanity in the eyes of the officer, and he can no longer chase his intended victim.
• This story demonstrates that even when the impulse to be cruel is strong, our best sentiments can break through and restore our recognition of the common humanity of others.

Question 13

Chapter 7: Answering Nietzsche.

Question 1: What is the task of refashioning ethics with a collective bent, according to Glover in Chapter 7?

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 13

• Glover’s task is to create a post-theological morality that addresses human needs and weaknesses.
• The new ethics should have a wider moral scope that includes all of humanity.
• Institutions opposing cruelty and promoting peace, such as UN Peacekeepers and mediation, are necessary.
• Cultural change aimed at more deeply restraining cruelty is also needed.

Question 14

Chapter 7: Answering Nietzsche.

How should the new ethics be created to address human moral fragility and answer it systematically, according to Glover in Chapter 7?

The new ethics should be e…….. and based on scientific inquiry into human moral behaviour and fragility.
* It should be designed to deal with h….. as they are, rather than as they o…. to be.
* The new ethics should be based on a co…….. and s….. understanding of morality
* It should be able to recognise and address the m…. d………. and co……. that arise from different communities and cultures.

PART ONE: ETHICS WITHOUT THE MORAL LAW

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 14

• The new ethics should be empirical and based on scientific inquiry into human moral behaviour and fragility.
• It should be designed to deal with humans as they are, rather than as they ought to be.
• The new ethics should be based on a collective and social understanding of morality.
• It should be able to recognise and address the moral differences and conflicts that arise from different communities and cultures.

Question 15

Chapter 8: Close Combat.

What are some factors that contribute to soldiers behaving differently in close combat?

• D……………. of the soldier (feeling detached from your situation and circumstances)
• D…………. of the enemy
• Providing young men with a defined path to r………. as adult soldiers through killing

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 15

• Depersonalization of the soldier (feeling detached from your situation and circumstances)
• Dehumanization of the enemy
• Providing young men with a defined path to recognition as adult soldiers through killing

Question 16

Chapter 8: Close Combat.

How do soldiers sometimes experience killing in close combat?

• Some soldiers report experiencing the killing as f.. “in strange and troubling ways”
• Moral r…….. occasionally breaks through
• Some soldiers experience bursts of violence as a result of hu……… or an intense sense of c………
• The intense experience of close combat can lead to a release of frustration and a desire for r…… .

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 16

• Some soldiers report experiencing the killing as fun “in strange and troubling ways”
• Moral revulsion occasionally breaks through
• Some soldiers experience bursts of violence as a result of humiliation or an intense sense of camaraderie
• The intense experience of close combat can lead to a release of frustration and a desire for revenge.

Question 17

*Chapter 9: The Case of My Lai. *

What happened during the American massacre of villagers at My Lai in Vietnam?

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 17

• American soldiers massacred hundreds of Vietnamese villagers, including women, children, and elderly people.
• The commanders encouraged the soldiers to engage in the carnage, and the soldiers followed orders.
• A few soldiers resisted, but most participated in the massacre.

Question 18

*Chapter 9: The Case of My Lai. *

What are the psychological features of My Lai that are common to “normal” combat responses?

• Soldiers may follow orders even when they are m…… or e……. W…. .
• The d…………. of the enemy can make it easier for soldiers to engage in violence and killing.
• Soldiers may experience a loss of c…… and engage in violence that goes beyond what is n…….. for the mission.
• Some soldiers may resist orders that go against their m….. or e…… p……… .

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 18

• Soldiers may follow orders even when they are morally or ethically wrong.
• The dehumanization of the enemy can make it easier for soldiers to engage in violence and killing.
• Soldiers may experience a loss of control and engage in violence that goes beyond what is necessary for the mission.
• Some soldiers may resist orders that go against their moral or ethical principles.

Question 19

Chapter 10: The Shift to Killing at a Distance.

What is the innovation in warfare discussed in Chapter 10, and how was it used during World War I?

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 19

• The innovation is the shift to killing at a distance in warfare during the 20th century.
• This involves using technical means, such as blockades, to cause death from a distance.

During World War I, Britain’s blockade of Germany caused around 500,000 German deaths from starvation and associated diseases.

Question 20

Chapter 10: The Shift to Killing at a Distance.

How does ‘killing at a distance’ impact individual morality?

Killing at a distance requires f….r er……s of individual morality than hand-to-hand combat.

However, moral identity must still be su……d in order to engage in the mass killing of civilians.

Justification for the killings may come from the belief that it is n…….y for victory or for the g…….r good.

The policy may be implemented by many people in many places, leading to its ins………….on and making it easier to justify large-scale civilian deaths.

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 20

• Killing at a distance requires fewer erosions of individual morality than hand-to-hand combat.
• However, moral identity must still be suppressed in order to engage in the mass killing of civilians.
• Justification for the killings may come from the belief that it is necessary for victory or for the greater good.
• The policy may be implemented by many people in many places, leading to its institutionalization and making it easier to justify large-scale civilian deaths.

Question 21

Chapter 11: Bombing.

What shift in perspective took place with regard to British bombing strategy during World War II? 3 ‘phases’.

A…….

Ina……..

In……..

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 21

• Phase 1 involved the bombing of military targets, avoiding civilian targets.
• Phase 2 involved the recognition that targeting was too inaccurate, leading to acceptance of destruction of inadvertent civilian targets.
• Phase 3 involved intentional destruction of civilian targets to demoralize the population and inhibit industrial workforce participation in the German war effort.

Question 22

Chapter 11: Bombing.

How does physical distance impact the acceptability of civilian retaliatory death in bombing?

• Physical distance from the bombing makes civilian retaliatory death more a……… to those who order and carry out the bombing.
• This can lead to the i………. targeting of civilians, as seen in the i…….. destruction of civilian targets during the third phase of British carpet bombing.
• The emphasis on i…….. can also lead to dissembling , where commanders may deny r…………. for i……….. targeting civilians.
• The opposition to bombing of civilians by Bishop Bell highlights the moral degradation that can result from these acts, both on the perpetrators and their civilization.

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 22

• Physical distance from the bombing makes civilian retaliatory death more acceptable to those who order and carry out the bombing.
• This can lead to the intentional targeting of civilians, as seen in the intentional destruction of civilian targets during the third phase of British carpet bombing.
• The emphasis on intention can also lead to dissembling, where commanders may deny responsibility for intentionally targeting civilians.
• The opposition to bombing of civilians by Bishop Bell highlights the moral degradation that can result from these acts, both on the perpetrators and their civilization.

Question 23

Chapter 12: Hiroshima.

What were some of the factors that contributed to the decision to use atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki during World War II, and could the decision have been made differently?

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 23

• Factors that contributed to the decision to use atomic bombs included callousness towards civilian bombings, fear of Axis nuclear programs, and the existence of the American bomb.
• The case for a rapid end to the war was compelling, but Truman overruled Eisenhower’s objections against using the atomic weapon on cities.
• Other considerations that intervened included the enthusiasm of the military for demonstrating the weapon militarily and the need to intimidate the Soviets in Europe.
• Glover suggests that Truman could have pursued other options, such as another test of the weapons on American soil in which Japanese observers participated or a negotiated peace without the demand to depose the Emperor.

Question 24

Chapter 12: Hiroshima.

Focusing on the ‘rule of double effect’, what was Elizabeth Anscombe’s argument against giving Harry Truman an honorary degree? (Hint - this refers to intention and also her religious beliefs)

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 24

• Elizabeth Anscombe argued against giving Truman an honorary degree based on the double effect doctrine in just war theory.
• The double effect doctrine permits innocent deaths, when limited, to achieve military results of protecting oneself or others, but it has two different rules: were innocent deaths wanted? and were innocent deaths so integral to the act that we cannot call them accidental?
• Both rules are premised on an absolute prohibition on taking innocent life, which is part of Catholic orthodoxy.
• Anscombe’s argument was based on the belief that innocent lives were not sufficiently limited in the use of atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and that Truman could have pursued alternative options to achieve a rapid end to the war.

Question 25

Chapter 13: War and the Moral Resources.

What are some of the ways in which moral identity suffers in long distance war, and how do they differ from the erosion of moral identity in close combat?

In long distance war, moral identity suffers from distance and passivity, as soldiers may feel d……….. from the impact of their actions on the ground.

Fragmentation of r………..y, in which no one person feels fully responsible for the actions taken, can also contribute to the e……n of moral identity in long distance war.

The effect of pr…….s in mass killings can also contribute to the e……n of moral identity, as soldiers may feel that their actions are justified by similar actions taken in the past.

Unlike in close combat, emotional outbursts in response to feelings of vengencee or hu……..n are less likely to occur in long distance war, as soldiers are often not in direct contact with the enemy.

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 25

• In long distance war, moral identity suffers from distance and passivity, as soldiers may feel disconnected from the impact of their actions on the ground.
• Fragmentation of responsibility, in which no one person feels fully responsible for the actions taken, can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity in long distance war.
• The effect of precedents in mass killings can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity, as soldiers may feel that their actions are justified by similar actions taken in the past.
• Unlike in close combat, emotional outbursts in response to feelings of vengeance or humiliation are less likely to occur in long distance war, as soldiers are often not in direct contact with the enemy.

Question 26

Chapter 13: War and the Moral Resources.

How does close combat affect soldiers’ moral identity, and what are some of the factors that contribute to its erosion?

• Close combat can erode soldiers’ moral identity by d……….. the enemy, making them emotionally defensive, and training them to be aggressive.
• The alien u………. of the battlefield can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity, as can contempt for moral dialogue and emotional outbursts in response to feelings of v……. or h………. .
• Battle e…… , a phenomenon in which soldiers feel a sense of e……. and invincibility in combat, can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity.

PART TWO: THE MORAL PSYCHOLOGY OF WAGING WAR

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 26

• Close combat can erode soldiers’ moral identity by dehumanizing the enemy, making them emotionally defensive, and training them to be aggressive.
• The alien unfamiliarity of the battlefield can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity, as can contempt for moral dialogue and emotional outbursts in response to feelings of vengeance or humiliation.
• Battle ecstasy, a phenomenon in which soldiers feel a sense of euphoria and invincibility in combat, can also contribute to the erosion of moral identity.

Question 27

Personal research

Which two thinkers espouse different versions of The Expanding Circle?

CONCEPT OF EXPANDING CIRCLE

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 27

Adam Smith - linked to trade

Peter Singer (1981) - rights movements

(Increasing empathy as circle widens)

Question 28

Personal research

What are the three ‘moral resources’ Glover identifies to ‘restrain evil’?

S…….

R…… for d……

S…. of m…. i…….

MORAL IDENTITY

Humanity: Jonathan Glover

Answer 28

1. Sympathy - which can anaesthetised by dehumanisation (as the Jews experienced in Nazi Germany / Philip Zimbardo’s randomly assigned groups)
2. Respect for dignity (don’t spit on beggars - outrage is a powerful inhibitor). Cruelty can remove.
3. Sense of moral identity (‘I don’t want to be the sort of person who..’ - can be reduced by ‘I am just the person who…’ (making chain of responsibility complex)).