Human Rights and Environment

Question 1

State which hasn’t ratified the UN rights of the child

Answer 1

USA

Question 2

Criticisms of ICC and Special UN Tribunals
Duration
Selective
Money Sink

Answer 2

Duration: Trial for Milosovic (ICTY) -
E.g Died waiting for 4 years

Selective: Rwanda & Yugoslavia are main focus
E.g Rohingya people still have no definitive resolution since 2020 (Myanmar to take provisional measures to protect the Rohingya from genocide)

Money Sink: Few prosecutions, significant cost
E.g ICC: 31 Arrest Warrants, 10 convictions - $1.5bn total budget

Question 3

Failure of Cambodia - Special UN Tribunal

Answer 3

Dropped 2 cases despite convicted being evidenced members of the Khmer Rouge

May have been because the PM at the time was himself an ex-Khmer Rouge soldier

Question 4

As of 2018 how many cases had the ICC had and where did they originate from? How has this changed?

Answer 4

26 cases, all of which originated from Africa. This changed when the ICC brought charges against Putin in 2023

Question 5

What is an example of a democracy having poor human rights?

Answer 5

India operate stateless camps where people of certain nationalities who do not have legal identification are detained.

India maintains a nation register of citizens, but many muslims and people from ethnic backgrounds are prevented from being registered as they do not have legal indentification.

Question 6

Successes of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY)

Answer 6

Sentenced 90 people for war crimes, genocide, ethnic cleansing and crimes against humanity

Brought every fugitive before the court

Question 7

State Sovereignty Helps Human Rights

Answer 7

Many states do not sign up to international laws yet still have strong human rights laws E.g USA is not an ICC member but still upholds rights
-has 1st amendment - freedom of speech

Humanitarian intervention is strengthened by the UN’s responsibility to Protect doctrine, it can overcome the obstacle of state sovereignty with military force e.g Libya

Question 8

Human Rights Weakness - Sovereignty

Answer 8

States can choose whether to sign up to international laws and courts. If they do not sign up then they are not legally bound by these laws and courts

Powerful states can abuse human rights and not face or withstand international pressure and sanctions
E.g China

Question 9

Two examples of Western double standard in humanitarian intervention

Answer 9

1. Turkey’s President has become increasingly authoritarian since a failed coup in 2016, yet due to Turkey’s vital strategic position, criticism from the West has been limited.
2. Saudi Arabia has been widely condoned for human rights violations. In 2022, they executed 81 men in one day, three days later Boris Johnson urged for closer relations with the oil-rich Kingdom as the UK ended its reliance on Russian energy.

Question 10

Human rights abuses where human intervention is impossible
China & Saudi Arabia

Answer 10

1. China is carrying out a genocide against the Uyghur Muslims and yet their huge military and economic power makes any intervention impossible. China’s veto on the UNSC makes any UN condemnation impossible.
2. Saudi Arabia’s intervention in Yemen has been widely criticised by human rights groups but since Saudi Arabia is a vital oil exporter, intervention has been limited

Question 11

1995 Bosnia Humanitarian Intervention

Answer 11

Bosnian Serb forces were responsible for massacres

NATO responded by bombing Bosnian Serb positions forcing their leaders to agree to peace terms

Subsequent nation-building was carried out, making the intervention a success

Question 12

2011 Libya Humanitarian Intervention

Answer 12

UN authorised intervention to protect civillians as a violence spread, NATO implemeneted these resolutions

NATO intervention led to the overthrow of Gadaffi and the temporary ending of conflict

However inadequate post-intervention nation-building led to Libya descending into civil war

Question 13

3 Examples of success for the ICC

Answer 13

1. Two Congolese warlords (Thomas Lubanga and Germain Katanga) were convicted of war crimes during the Congolese civil war
2. In 2021, Sudan agreed to hand over its former president, Omar al-bashir to the ICC on charged of crimes against humanity
3. Despite it lacking jurisdiction over Russia, it has played an important role in documenting evidence of atrocities carried out during the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Question 14

International Tribunal Strength Example - Rwanda Precedents

Answer 14

Rwanda Tribunal set the precedent that rape could not be used to perpetrate genocide

Established precedent that the media could be prosecuted for encouraging genocide

Question 15

Cambodia Tribunal - Success

Answer 15

Sentenced 3 lead members of the Khmer Rouge to life imprisonment for the regime’s genocidal policies

Question 16

Dudgeon Vs United Kingdom 1981 (ECHR)

Answer 16

Dudgeon appealed to ECHR because his home was searched by the Royal Ulster Constabulary for evidence he was homosexual.
Court ruled that his right to a private life had been breached

-Highlighted need for reform and in 1982 homosexuality was decriminalised in Northern Ireland

Question 17

Navalny ECHR Case 2021

Answer 17

Ruled Russia should immediately free opposition leader Alexei Navalny since there was a risk to his life in prison.
Putin refused and said that “we cannot allow any blows against Russia’s sovereignty”

Question 18

Palestine vs Israel advisory case 2022

Answer 18

UNGA requested the ICJ provide an advisory opinion on the legality of the occupation of Palestinian territory
Israel immediately made clear that it regarded the case as politically motivated and that it would ignore any advisory opinion needed

Question 19

Cambodia vs Thailand ICJ 2013 Case

Answer 19

Cambodia complained to the ICJ that Thailand had occupied a piece of its territory, the ICJ ruled in favour of Cambodia and Thailand accepted the judgement

Question 20

How many states are signed up the ICJ

Answer 20

74

Question 21

Shallow Green ecology + Example

Answer 21

Actions of mankind influence climate change and the global community should take action to reuce carbon emissions before its too late.

Seeks to do this within the existing free market/capitalist economic structures and without diminishing economic growth or material wellbeing. Endeavours to resolve the problem through market forces and technological innovation.

Optimistic

E.g Trillion Trees initiative encourages governments to commit to planting trees in order to absorb carbon dioxide

Question 22

Shallow Green Example - Congestion charges

Answer 22

A number of cities including London, Stockholm and Milan have introduced congestion charges to discourage traffic in city centres in order to improve air quality

Question 23

Shallow Green Example - Green Homes Grant

Answer 23

2020 - British government established the Green Homes Grant. This is a £2 billion grant scheme which will subsidise home-owners who insulate their homes

Question 24

Shallow Green Example - Electric cars

Answer 24

Since 2020 fully electric cars are exempt from UK road tax

Question 25

Shallow Green Example - Energy Consumption Labelling

Answer 25

The EU requires member states to adopt energy consumption labelling for most domestic appliances, providing consumers with the information and an incentive to make green choices

Question 26

Shallow Green Example - Government legislation (UK)

Answer 26

UK government has banned the sale of new petrol and diesel cars from 2030

In 2021, the UK committed to cutting carbon emissions by 89% of 1990 levels by 2035

Question 27

Shallow Green Example - Government legislation (India)

Answer 27

In 2020, India committed to generating 40% of its electiricity from non-fossil fuels by 2030

Question 28

Deep Green Ecology

Answer 28

Mainstream attempts to protect environment are done with selfish motivation to protect material interests

We should protect planet out of love for the life it provides - idealistic

Only do what we need to in order to satisfy essential needs, accept limitations on our lifestyle in order to favour the planet and governments shouldn’t prioritise economic growth.
E.g UK Green Party committed to allowing zero or negative growth

Question 29

Tragedy for the Commons

Answer 29

Ways in which individual users put their own immediate interests before those of a wider community, so exhausting the common resources for all

Question 30

Rio De Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) S&W

Answer 30

Strengths
172 participated, 181 endorsed principles of UNFCCC
It established the UNFCCC as a framework, binding members to annual meetings

Weaknesses
US found reducing carbon emissions unpopular - didn’t engage with UNFCCC
No specific binding target was agreed for reducing carbon emissions
No monitoring procedures were authorised by the UNFCCC, nation states could not be held accountable for lack of progress

Question 31

Kyoto Summit (1997) S&W

Answer 31

Strengths
Set the first legally binding emissions targets- (Reduce emissions by 5% of 1990 levels)
EU reduced emissions by 8% during the lifetime of this protocol

Weaknesses
Carbon reduction was only required of 37 industrialised nations and the EU
The developing world was exempt including China which was becoming a huge emitter
USA refused to sign

Question 32

Paris (2015) S&W

Answer 32

Strengths
Recognised that temperature rises should be kept as close to 1.5 degrees
The treaty was based on the principle that states should set their own emissions targets (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions, INDCs)

Weaknesses
Not legally binding
INDCs will not be enough to stop the temperature rise

Question 32

Copenhagen (2009) S&W

Answer 32

Strengths
States agreed that global temperature rise should be limited to 2 degrees during the century
China and India agreed to reduce their carbon emissions

Weaknesses
Did not include any legally binding agreements
No consensus on the developed vs developing world

Question 33

Glasgow (2021) S&W

Answer 33

Strengths
Recognised importance of reducing reliance on coal (responsible for 40% of annual carbon emissions)
Government subsidies to coal, oil and natural gas to be gradually removed
USA and China to cooperate to reduce methane emissions and encourage green energy

Weaknesses
Phase down rather than phase out of coal
Non-binding resolution
E.G 100 countries agreed to cut methane emissions by 30% by 2030 (like China, India and Russia) but they didnt

Question 34

UK Pledge for Climate Finance

Answer 34

Agreed to double its climate finance to £11.6bn between 2020 - 2025

Question 35

IPCC - Criticism 2007

Answer 35

2007 Report contained inaccurate information on the melting on Himalayan glaciers

Question 36

As of 2021 How many States signed the optional ICC Clause for Jurisdiction

Answer 36

2021 only 123 nation states had fully accepted the mandate of the ICC
-70% of world population is outside the jurisdiction of the Court