Human Growth & Development Flashcards
1
Q
Freud’s stages are psychosexual while Erik Erikson’s stages are:
A
psychosocial
2
Q
What ages does Freudian psychosexual theory cover?
A
In Freudian theory, the final stage (the gential stage) begins at age 12 and is said to continue through one’s lifespan. Many scholars do not feel that Freud’s theory truly covers the entire lifespan because they find it difficult to believe that a crisis at age 12 remains the central issue until senility.
3
Q
What are Erik Erikson’s psychosocial stages?
A
He has 8 stages (trust vs. mistrust, integrity vs. despair) that focus on social relationships. Each stage is seen as a psychosocial crisis or turning point. Erikson did not imply that a person either totally succeeds or fails but rather that a individual leans towards a given alternative. The stages are:
Trust vs. mistrust (correspond w/ oral-sensory - birth -1 )
Autonomy vs. shame or doubt (correspond w/anal - 1-2 yrs)
Initiative vs. guilt (genital - 3-6 yrs)
Industry vs. inferiority (latency - 7-10)
Identity vs. role confusion (adolescence 11-19)
Intimacy vs. isolation (early adulthood - 20-44)
Generativity vs. stagnation (middle adulthood, 45-64)
integrity vs. despair (late adulthood, 65+)
4
Q
What are Freud’s psychosexual stages?
A
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
5
Q
What do behaviorists believe?
A
Behaviorists do not believe in concepts like the id, ego, and superego. They don’t believe in mental concepts like “the mind” nor do they believe in consciousness. They feel that if things cannot be measured they do not exist.
6
Q
What does “psychometric” mean?
A
Relating to mental testing or measurement
7
Q
What does psychodiagnostic mean?
A
It pertains to the study of personality through interpretation of behavior or nonverbal cues. In counseling it can also mean that the counselor uses factors (i.e. psychosocial stages) or tests to label the client in a diagnostic category.
8
Q
What is emphasized in Freud’s psychodynamic theory?
A
Instincts
9
Q
What is Jean Piaget known for?
A
He is the leading name in cognitive development in children. His four-stage cognitive development theory is based on epigenesis or the notion that successfully completing a previous stage is necessay for the stages that transpire next.
10
Q
What is psychopharmacology?
A
It studies the effects that medications or drugs have on psychological functions.
11
Q
What is the ego?
A
The ego is logical, rational, and utilizes the power of reasoning and control to keep impulses in check. Simply put, ego psychologists, unlike strict Freudians, accent the ego and the power of control. Erikson stressed ego functions.
12
Q
What is the id?
A
The id is the seat of sex and aggression. It is not rational or logical and it is void of time orientation. The id is chaotric and concerned only with the body and not with the outside world. Freud emphasized the importance of the id while Erikson stressed ego functions. The id is also called the pleasure principle and houses the animalistic instincts.
13
Q
What is the superego?
A
The superego refers to the moralistic and idealistic portion of the personality.
14
Q
What kind of psychologist is Erik Erikson?
A
Ego psychologist
15
Q
Who is the only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory that encompassed the entire life span?
A
Erik Erikson. Erikson was a disciple of Freud’s and a psychoanalyst who created a theory with 8 stages in which each stage represents a psychosicla crisis or turning point. Since the final stage doesn’t even begin until age 60, most personality theorists believe his theory actually covers the entire life of an individual.
16
Q
Do psychodynamic theories focus on unconcious processes or cognitive factors?
A
unconscious processes
17
Q
Ego psychologists believe
A
in man’s powers of reasoning to control behavior
18
Q
The statement “the ego is dependent on the id” would most likely reflect the world of
A
Sigmund Freud, who created psychodynamic theory
19
Q
In Freudian theory, what is the relationship between the id and the ego?
A
In Freudian theory, the ego is known as the reality principle and is pressured by the id to succumb to pleasure or gratification regardless of consequences. Erik Erikson, an ego psychologist, would not emphasize the role of the id but rather the power of control or the ego.
20
Q
Who is Arnold Lazarus?
A
Arnold Lazarus is considered a pioneer in the behavior therapy movement, especially in regard to the use of systematic desensitization, a technique which helps clients cope with phobias. Today his name is associated with multimodal therapy.
21
Q
What is dualistic thinking
A
A concept stressed by Robert Perry that refers to black and white thinking with almost no ambiguity, common among teens. CStudents in this stage assume a professor has “the answer”. As they move into adulthood, they move into relativistic thinking.
22
Q
What is relativistic thinking?
A
A step in growth from dualistic thinking. In relativistic thinking, the individual now has the ability to perceive that not everything is right or wrong but an answer can exist relative to a specific situation. Essentially, there is more than one way to view the world.
23
Q
Who is Robert Kegan?
A
Robert Kegan Is a well-known figure in the area of adult cognitive development. His model stresses interpersonal development. His theory is billed as a “constructive model of development”, meaning individuals construct reality throughout the lifespan. He focuses on meaning making and has 6 stages in his theory.
24
Q
What is the correct order of Jean Piaget’s four stages?
A
Sensorimotor, preoperations, concrete operations, formal operations. Piaget was adamant that the order of the stages is the same for every culture, though the individual ages can vary.
(memory tip: first stages - about senses and memory. Pre-operations must come before anything operational. and last stage people get more formal as they get older)
25
What are idiographic approaches to theories?
Idiographic approaches to theories such as Freud and Piaget examine individuals, not groups of people, in depth. Idiographic theories can be contrasted with nomothetic approaches such as behaviorism or the DSM.
26
What are nomothetic approaches?
Nomothetic approaches, in contrast to idiographic approaches, are things like behaviorism or the DSM where large numbers of people are studied to create general principles that apply to the population.
27
Why have some behavioral scientists been critical of Swiss child psychologist Jean Piaget's developmental research?
His findings were often derived from observing his own children. His methods involved games and interviews, often with his own children, Lucienne, Laurent, and Jacqueline. Some researchers have been critical of his methods
28
What is a *t* test?
A *t* test is a parametric statistical test used in formal experiments to determine whether there is a significant difference between two groups. *t* is used to ascertain if the means of the group are significantly different from each other. When using the *t* test the groups must be normally distributed.
29
A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less water. The child has not yet mastered
Conservation.
30
What does conservation refer to in Piaget's theory?
The term conservation refers to the notion that a substance's weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes shape. According to Piaget, the child masters conservation and the concept of reversibility during the concrete operations stage (ages 7-11 years). Both conservation and the ability to count mentally occur in the concrete operational thought stage. (note that conservation, counting, and concrete operations all start with c!)
31
What is symbolic schema in Piaget's theory?
A cognitive structure that grows with life experience. A scam is merely a system which permits the child to test out things in the physical world.
32
What is trust vs. mistrust?
Erikson's first psychosocial stage. This stage corresponds to Freud's initial oral-sensory stage (about birth-1 year). Each of Erikson's stages is described using bipolar or opposing tendencies.
33
In Piagetian literature, conservation would most likely refer to
Volume or mass
34
What developmental theory does the statistical research of David Elkind support?
Piaget's notions regarding conservation.
35
In Piaget's theory of conservation, supported by the statistical research of David Elkind, what order to children learn the conservation of mass, volume, and weight?
Piaget and Elkind report that mass is the first, most easily understood concept. The mastery of weight is next and finally the notion of volume can be comprehended. (Think about MV like in MVP to remember the order…and put W for weight in the middle?)
36
A child masters conservation in the Piagetian stage known as
Concrete operations (ages 7-11)
37
Which theorist expanded on Piaget's conceptualizations of moral development?
Lawrence Kohlberg.
38
Who is Lev Vygotsky?
Vygotsky disagreed with Piaget's notions that developmental stages take place naturally. Vygotsky insisted that the stages unfold due to educational intervention.
39
Who is Lawrence Kohlberg?
Kohlberg, who expanded on Piaget's conceptualization of moral development, is perhaps the leading theorist in moral development. He used stories to determine the level of moral development in children.
40
What does epigenetic mean and whose theories are said to be epigenetic in nature?
Epigenetic is a biological term borrowed from embryology. This principle states that each stage emerges from the one before it. The process follows a given order and is systematic. Recently the definition has focused on the fact that environmental factors can influence genetic expression. Kohlberg's, Erikson's, and Maslow's theories are said to be epigenetic in nature.
41
According to Jean Piaget, a child masters the concept of reversibility in the third stage, known as concrete operations or concrete operational thought. This notion suggests
that one can undo an action - hence, an object (say a glass of water) can return to its initial shape.
42
During a thunderstorm, a 6-year old in Piaget's stage of preoperational thought (stage 2) says, “the rain is following me”. This is an example of
egocentrism.
43
What is egocentrism in Piaget's theory
Egocentrism, which is associated with the stage of preoperational thought conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else. Abstract thought does not occur until the fourth or final stage.
44
When does abstract thought appear in Piaget's stages?
Abstract thought does not appear until Piaget's fourth and final stage, formal operations.
45
How many levels of morality did Lawrence Kohlberg suggest?
Kohlberg's theory has three levels of moral development: the preconventional, conventional, and post conventional (the latter is referred to in some texts as the personal integrity or morality of self-accepted principles level). Each level can be further broken down into two stages.
46
What is the Heinz Dilemma?
The Heinz Dilemma is one method used by Lawrence Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual. The story goes:
"A woman in Europe was dying of cancer. Only one drug could save her. It was discovered by the local druggist. The druggist was charging $2000 which was 10x the cost to make the drug. The woman's husband, Heinz, couldn't raise or borrow the money. He asked the druggist to reduce the price or let him pay later but the druggist said no. The husband was desperate and broke into the store to steal the drug. Should he have done that? Why?
The person's reason for the decision (vs. the decision itself) allowed Kohlberg to evaluate the person's stage of moral development - the reasoning used to solve a moral dilemma could be used to assess moral development.
47
What is the Menninger Clinic?
A traditional psychoanalytic foothold as well as the site of landmark work in the area of biofeedback, which is a technique utilized to help individuals learn to control bodily processes more effectively using electronic devices.
48
The term *identity crisis* comes from the work of
Erik Erikson. Erikson felt that in an attempt to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment with various roles.
49
Who is Alfred Adler ?
The founder of individual psychology, which stresses the inferiority complex.
50
What does “RS” refer to in our field?
RS refers to religious and spiritual. Addressing RS issues in counseling has increased in the last several years. In fact, the number of counselors who consider themselves spiritual (though not necessarily religious) is also climbing. RS factors are often examined by counselors attempting to integrate the practice of positive psychology into their work.
51
What is positive psychology?
The term, popularized by Abraham Maslow and popularized by Learned Helplessness Syndrome pioneer Martin Seligman refers to the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, and the ability to love, happiness, and wisdom.
52
What are Kohlberg's 3 levels of morality?
**Preconventional:** the child responds to consequences. In this stage, reward and punishment (I.e. selfish motives) strongly influence the behavior.
**Conventional:** In this level, the individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and nation.
**Post conventional:** Kohlberg felt that many people never reach this level, also known as self-accepted morality. A person who reaches this level is concerned with universal, ethical principles of justices, dignity, and equality of human rights. Kohlberg's research indicated that under 40% of his middle class urban males had reached this level. Ghandi, Socrates, and MLK are cited of examples of people at this level, for whom the common good of society is a key issue.
53
Who is Henry Stack Sullivan
Henry Stack Sullivan postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, and late adolescence. His theory, known as the **psychiatry of interpersonal relations** is similar to Erikson's theory in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society. Sullivan focuses on social influences.
54
What is Erikson's final or eighth stage?
Integrity vs. despair. This final stage begins around 60. An individual who has successfully mastered all stages feels a sense of integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile.
55
In Kohlberg's first or preconventional level, the individual's moral behavior is guided by
consequences.
In the consequences stage (called premoral) a treat or removal of a favorite toy is more important than societal expectations and the law.
56
What is a fugue state?
A fugue state refers to an individual who experiences memory loss and leaves home, often with the intention of changing his or her job or identity
57
What is counterconditioning?
A behaviorist technique in which the goal is to weaken or eliminate a learned response by pairing it with a stronger or desirable response. Systematic desensitization is a good example of this.
58
What is Kohlberg's second level of morality?
Conventional morality.
This is characterized by a desire to live up to society's expectations AND a desire to conform. At the conventional level, the individual wins to conform to the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail. Kohlberg felt that attempts to upgrade the morals of our youth have failed.
59
Kohlberg's highest level of morality is *postconventional morality*. Here the individual:
has self-imposed morals and ethics.
post conventional morality is the highest level where the individual creates his or her own moral principles rather than those set by society or family. It has been called a *prior to society perspective.*
60
Which of Kohlberg's levels corresponds with a “good boy/good girl” orientation?
The conventional level (Kohlberg's level 2 of 3). In the good boy/good girl orientation, the person is concerned with approbation and ability to please others in order to achieve recognition.
61
Where does naive hedonism appear within Kohlberg's stages?
Hedonism occurs in the second stage of Kohlberg's preconventional level (stage 1). Here the child says to himself, “If I'm nice, others will be nice to me and I'll get what I want.”
62
Where does the premise that rewards guide morals appear within Kohlberg's stages?
This premise appears in the first stage of Kohlberg's preconventional stage (stage 1), which is the punishment vs. obedience orientation.
63
What is the zone of proximal development?
The zone of proximal development describes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instruction. The concept was pioneered by Lev Vygotsky.
64
Who is the term “organ inferiority” associated with?
Alfred Adler, who create individual psychology.
65
What is the maturation hypothesis and which theorists could be classified as maturationists?
The concept of the maturation hypothesis (or maturation theory) suggests that behavior is guided exclusively by hereditary factors but that certain behaviors will not manifest themselves until the necessary stimuli are present in the environment. The theory also suggests that the individual's neural development must be at a certain level of maturity for behavior to unfold.
People who believe in this concept strive to unleash inborn abilities, instincts, and drives and thus the client's childhood and past are seen as important therapeutic topics. **Freud and Erikson could be classified as maturationists**.
66
What is DBT?
DBT or Dialectical Behavioral Therapy focuses heavily on mindfulness (being aware of your own state of mind and the environment) and was created by Marsha Lineman. It is useful for clients harboring feelings of self-harm and suicide and for substance abuse issues.
67
Who is John Bowlby?
Bowlby was a British Psychiatrist most closely associated with bonding and attachment.
He saw bonding and attachment as having survival value or “adaptive significance”. He insisted that in order to lead a normal social life. a child must bond with an adult by the age of 3. IF the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss' and this is said to be the breeding ground for psychopathology.
68
Who is Margaret Mahler?
Mahler's work is associated with attachment and bonding. She calls the child's absolute dependence on the female caretaker “symbiosis” and believed that difficulties in a symbiotic relationship can result in adult psychosis. Her theory is known as the **separation-individuation theory** of child development.
69
In which Eriksonian stage does the midlife crisis appear?
Generativity vs. stagnation.
Most theorists believe that the midlife crisis occurs between 35-45 for men and about 5 years earlier for women when the individual realizes life is half over and people need to face the fact that they have often not achieved their goals or aspirations.
70
Which researcher is well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys?
Harry Harlow.
Harlow believed attachment was an innate tendency and not one which was learned. Monkeys played in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior. When these monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys, Harlow noted some improvement in the deprived monkeys.
71
What did Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin's research say?
Maccoby and Jacklin researched gender differences and found very few differences between males and females that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors. They did find that men outpreferoemd women in math, but did not do so until high school or college. They concluded that the major impetus for sex-role differences may come from child rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry.
72
Which Eriksonian stage focuses heavily on sharing your life with another person?
Intimacy vs. isolation - ages 23-34. An individuals who fails to do well in this stage may concluded he or she can depend on no one but the self.
73
When does conformity usually peak?
conformity seem to peak in the early teens. (so a 13 year old might conform to his or her peers more than a 19 year old)
74
What were Harry Harlow's experiments with baby monkeys?
Harlow found that baby monkeys were more likely to cling to a Terry-cloth surrogate mother than a wire surrogate mother, even though the wire mothers were equipped to dispense milk. He concluded that this “contact comfort” is important in the development of the infant's attachment to his or her mother. A 165-day experiment revealed that the monkeys were spending an average of 1.5 hours per day with the wire mother and 16 hours with the terry-cloth mother.
75
What did John Bowlby say about a “releaser stimulus”
He said that, in humans, the parents act as a “releaser stimulus” to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding.
76
What are the components of Freud's structural theory of the mind?
Id, ego, and superego
77
What are Freud's psychosexual stages?
oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital
78
What do eros and thanatos mean in Freudian theory?
**Eros** refers to the Freudian concept of life instinct.
**Thanatos** refers to the self-destructive death instinct.
79
What do the terms “manifest” and “latent” mean in psychoanalysis?
These terms refer to the nature of a dream. **Manifest content** describes the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer. **Latent content** (which is seen as far more important by the Freudians) refers to the hidden meaning of the dream.
80
Do females or males more often commit suicide?
Males commit suicide more than females in nearly every age bracket. One theory is that men are more successful in killing themselves because they use firearms more often vs. less lethal methods.
81
Is suicide statistically very rare?
No. Suicide is generally the 10th or 11th leading cause of death in the US as well as the second or third leading killer of teens each year.
82
At what stage of a depressive episode do suicides usually occur?
Suicidal clients often make attempts after the depression begins to lift.
83
Do suicide rates increase or decrease with age?
suicide rates tend to increase with age.
84
What is the suicide rate in the US?
The overall suicide rate in the US is about 12/100,000
85
Are personality measures like the MMPI-2 or the Rorschach good predictors of suicidality?
No.
86
When does Erikson believe the fear of death is greatest?
During middle age (generatively vs. stagnation). In the final stage (ego integrity vs despair) , the individual would ideally accept the finality of life.
87
In Freudian theory, at which stage is attachment a major factor?
Attachement evolves primarily during the oral stage. This is the first Freudian psychosexual stage and occurs while the child is still an infant. Attachment studies in general indicate that the bonding process takes place early in life.
88
When comparing boys to girls, it could be noted that, in general
girls grow up to smile more, girls are using more feeling words by age 2, and girls are better able to read people without verbal cues at any age. Boys on the other hand, have been found to sometimes be more physically active and aggressive.
Maccoby and Jacklin may attribute these differences more to environment than genetics.
89
Which Freudian developmental stage least emphasizes sexuality?
Latency. In the developmental stages, the sexual drive seems hidden during latency. Sexual interests are replaced by social interests like sports, learning, and hobbies. Latency is the only Freudian developmental stage which is not primarily psychosexual in nature. If occurs between ages 6-12.
90
What did Stanley Coopersmith learn about child-rearing?
Stanley Coopersmith found that child-rearing methods seem to have a tremendous impact on self esteem. A study he conducted indicated that children with high self esteem were punished just as much as children with low self esteem, but the children with high self esteem were provided with a clear understanding of what was morally right and wrong. This was not usually the case with children with low self esteem. The children with high self-esteem actually had more rules than children with low self esteem. When the child with high self-esteem was punished, the emphasis was on the behavior being bad not the child. Parents of children with high self-esteem were more democratic in that they would listen to the child's arguments then explain the purpose of the rules.
91
In terms of child rearing, are boys or girls punished more?
boys are punished more than girls
92
What do developmental theorists mean when they speak of nature or nurture
How much heredity or environment interact to influence development. Today, most theorists day away from an extremist position and admit that both factors play a major role.
93
Who is B.F. Skinner?
Skinner was the prime mover in the behaviorist psychology movement. Behaviorists tend to emphasize the power of environment. Today, clinical applications of Skinnerian principles and other behaviorists are called **ABA** or applied behavior analysis.
94
What do stage theorists assume?
That qualitative changes between stages occur.
95
When do developmental theorists believe development begins?
They believe it is a continuous process which begins at conception. They are fond at looking at prenatal influences (ie smoking or alcohol consumption) that affects the fetus before birth.
96
Development is cephalocaudal, which means
Head to foot. The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs. The term “cephalocaudal” simply refers to the bodily portions between the head and tail.
97
What is heredity?
The transmutation of traits from parents to their offspring. It assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes, that hereditary characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes, and that the genes composed of DNA hold a genetic code.
98
What is heritability?
Heritability is the portion of a trait that can be explained vis genetic factors.
99
What is Piaget's final stage and what happens during it?
Piaget's final stage is known as the formal operational stage. In this stage, abstract thinking emerges and problems can be solved using deduction. Piaget felt a large number of people don't really reach this stage.
Another characteristic of this stage is that the child can think in terms of multiple hypotheses - if you ask a child a question, a child after 11+ might come up with several hypotheses while a child in a previous stage may be satisfied with one explanation.
Abstract concepts of time (what was life like 500 years ago) or distance (how far is 600 miles) can only be comprehended via abstract thinking which happens in this stage. At this stage, he child would feel ready for adulthood and would not feel helpless.
100
How many levels and stages are in Kohlberg's theory?
Kohlberg's theory includes 3 levels which fall into 2 stages each:
* **Preconventional level -** the “pre-moral level”
* stage 1: punishment/obedience orientation
* stage 2: naive hedonism (also called instrumental or egotistic orientation
* **Conventional level -**"morality of conventional rules and conformity"
* stage 3: good boy/good girl orientation
* stage 4: authority, law, and order orientation
* **Postconventional level -** “morality of self-accepted principles”
* stage 5: democratically accepted law or “social contract”
* stage 6: principles of self-conscience and universal ethics
101
A person who lives by his or her individual conscience and universal ethical principles has reached which of Kohlberg's levels?
This person has reached the postconventional level of self-accepted moral principles. This is Kohlberg's highest stage of moral development.
102
What is Freud's Oedipus complex?
It is the stage in which the child has fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent. This occurs during the phallic stage (3-5). The Oedipus complex is the most controversial part of Freud's theory
103
What is the Oedipus complex in girls called?
The Electra complex. In the Oedipus complex in boys and the Electra complex in girls, the child fantasizes about sexual relations with the opposite sex parent. This creates tension since this is generally not possible. Hence the child is said to have a fantasy in which he or she wishes to kill the parent of the opposite sex. Freud hypothesized that eventually the child resolves this conflict by identifying with the same sex parent and thus internalizes parental values – and thus the conscience or superego is born.
104
What is an in vivo situation?
In vivo means in real life. An in vivo situation in therapy typically refers to one in which the client is exposed to an actual situation which might prove frightful or difficult.
105
What is desensitization?
This refers to behavioral therapy techniques that help ameliorate anxiety reactions.
106
What does libidinal mean in psychoanalysis?
Related to libido, which is the sexual impulse or desire.
107
What did Eleanor Gibson research?
Eleanor Gibson researched the matter of depth perception in children using an apparatus know as a visual cliff. The visual cliff is a device which utilizes at glass sheet which simulates a drop off. By the 6th month of life, most infants will not attempt to cross the drop off, indicating that depth perception in humans is inherent.
108
When do babies begin to show strange anxiety?
8 months
109
What do empiricists believe?
Empiricists are theorists who believe development merely consists of quantitative changes. Empiricism grew out of the philosophy of John Locke and is sometimes referred to as associationism. According to this theory, scientiststs can only learn from objective facts. Empiricism is often said to be the forerunner to behaviorism.
110
What do organismic theorists believe about development?
Organismic theories are slanted towards qualitative rather than quantitative factors that can be measured empirically. Strictly speaking, organismic psychologists do not believe in a mind-body distinction. Since empiricists believe developmental changes can be measured and organicists feel that change can be internal, the two views are sometimes said to be opposing viewpoints.
111
An empiricist viewpoint would also be:
behavioristic. Behaviorists believe that if you can't measure it, it doesn't exist. Behaviorist empiricist researchers value statistical studies and emphasize the role of the environment. Organismic supporters feel the individual's actions are more important the the environment in terms of one's development.
112
What was Harry Harlow's ultimate discovery in his monkey experiments?
That contact was more important than milk and that monkeys preferred Terry-cloth mothers over wire-frame mothers, even when they both dispensed milk. In his experiment, the frightened monkeys ran over and tried to cling to both types of mother
113
Would gestalt psychologists like Kurt Goldstein be described as empiricist or organismic?
Organismic. This term can be used to refer to qualitative, internal-based theories (vs. external measurement-based theories) and can be used to describe theories like gestalt that describe a holistic model.
114
In Piaget's developmental theory, reflexes play the greatest role in which stage:
The sensorimotor phase. Piaget has said that the term “practical intelligence” captures the gist of this stage. He emphasized the concept of object permanence here, too.
115
What is object permanence?
A child who has not mastered object permanence is still a victim to “out of sight, out of mind”. Children need **representational thought** to master object permanence (also called object constancy). During this initial stage, the child learns the concept of time (that one event takes place before or after another) and causality (I.e. that a hand can move an object)
116
When does the schema of permanency and constancy of objects occur in Piaget's stages?
The sensorimotor stage - birth-2.
117
What did John Bowlby believe was the result of inadequate attachment?
He believed that conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood. Bowlby also believed that mothers should be the primary caretaker while the father's role was to emotionally support the mother vs nurturing the child.
117
What did John Bowlby believe was the result of inadequate attachment?
He believed that conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood. Bowlby also believed that mothers should be the primary caretaker while the father's role was to emotionally support the mother vs nurturing the child.
118
What did Harlow learn was the impact of monkeys being placed in isolation during the first few months of life?
They appeared to be autistic.
119
What does the term *fixation* refer to in psychoanalysis?
In psychoanalytic theory, the word *fixation* implies that the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. The person literally gets stuck in a stage where he or she feels safe.
Freud felt that frustration and anxiety were normal when passing through a developmental, but when they become too powerful, emotional growth will literally stop and the person becomes stuck (fixated) in the current phase)
120
What is the link between observing violence and aggression?
The literature on videos and violence concludes that watching violence tends to make children more aggressive. Experiments have demonstrated that even preschool aged children display more violent behavior after observing violence. Other researchers emphasize that the more we see, hear, and read about violence, the less it bothers us, so we behave more violently.
121
What does the term *instinctual* mean?
Instincts are species-specific innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned. Instincts are not learned behavioral responses. Instinctual behavior would be behavior that manifests itself in all normal members of a given species.
122
What does the word *ethology* refer to?
The study of ethology was developed by European zoologists who tried to explain behavior using Darwinian theory. It is associated with the work of **Konrad Lorenz**. Today, when people use the term ethology, it concerns field research using animals.
123
What does the term *comparative psychology* mean*?*
It refers to laboratory research using animals and attempts to generalize the findings to humans.
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Who is Konrad Lorenz?
Konrad Lorenz is best known for his work on the process of imprinting, an instinctual behavior in goslings and other animals in which the infant instinctually follows the first moving object it encounters, which is usually the mother. Lorenz used himself as the first moving object and the newborn geese followed him around instead of their mothers. This illustrated the principle of **critical periods** which state that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in an animal's development otherwise they won't be learned at all.
Lorenz also **claimed we are naturally aggressive** and stated that aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival. The solution, according to Lorenz, is to use catharsis and get our anger out via things like sports
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What is the Piagetian concept of contrition?
Centration occurs in the **preoperational stage** and is characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object or situation while not noticing the rest of it (I.e. focusing on a clown's red nose vs. the rest of the fact).
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What is the Piagetian concept of egocentrism?
This is the preoperational child's inability to see the world from anyone else's vantage point.
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What did Piaget believe about how teachers should teach?
Piaget believed teachers should lecture less as children in concrete operations and before learn best via their own actions and experimentation.
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What is epistemology?
Epistemology is a branch of philosophy that examines how we know what we know. Piaget considered himself a genetic epistemologist.
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What are Piaget's stages and what is associated with them:
* **Sensorimotor** - birth-2
* infant knows the world through movement and sensation and learn about the world through sucking, grasping, etc
* Infants learn object permanence and representational thinking
* Infants learn they are separate beings from the people and objects around them
* Infants learn causality
* **Preoperational stage** - 2-7
* children begin to think symbolically and use words and pictures -→ they acquire a **symbolic schema**
* associated with egocentrism, centration, animism, do not yet have mastery over conservation and reversability
* **concrete operational stage -** 7-11
* begin thinking logically about concrete events
* begin to understand the concept of conservation and reversibility
* thinking becomes more logical and organized but is still concrete
* begin using inductive logic (reasoning from specific info to general principle)
* become less egocentric, begin thinking about others
* **Formal operations stage -** 12+
* abstract thought emerges
* can entertain multiple hypotheses
* can use deductive logic (reasoning from general to specific)
* think about moral, philosophical, etc issues
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What is a symbolic schema?
Children acquire a symbolic schema during the preoperational phase. This allows for language and symbolism in play to occur – I.e. you can pretend a milk carton is a spaceship.
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Sigmund Freud and Erik Erikson agreed that
each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage.
Freud believed the stages were psychosexual and Erikson believed they were psychosocial but both believed they must resolve one stage before going on to the next.
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Who is Robert J. Havinghurst?
Robert J Havinghurt is a well-known figure in developmental psychology. He proposed developmental tasks for:
* **infancy and early childhood** (I.e. learning to walk or eat solid foods)
* **tasks for middle childhood, 6-12:** (I.e. learning to get along with peers or developing a conscience)
* **tasks of adolescence, 12-18:** (I.e. preparing for marriage and an economic career)
* **tasks of early adulthood, 19-30:** (I.e. selecting a mate and starting a family)
* **tasks of Middle Ages, 30-60** (assisting teenagers to become responsible adults and developing leisure activities)
* **tasks of later maturity, 60+:** dealing w/death of a spouse and adjusting to retirement
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Who are the major theorists who theorized about developmental stages?
* Freud (psychosexual)
* Erikson (psychosocial)
* Piaget (sensorimotor, preoperational, operational, post operational)
* Kohlberg (pre-conventional, conventional, post conventional - w/2 stages per level)
* Robert J. Havinghurst (tasks for infancy and early childhood, tasks for middle childhood, tasks of adolescence, tasks of early adulthood, tasks of middle age, tasks of later maturity)
* Jane Loevinger (focused on ego development via 7 stages and two transitions)
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What is sex role socialization?
In the past, people believed differences between men and women were based on biological factors but most people today feel children learn gender identity and male/female roles.
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What is negative reinforcement?
Negative reinforcement is a behaviorist term that occurs when taking something away incentivizes the behavior. (I.e.when a child does chores so that his parents do not nag him)
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What is positive reinforcement?
A behaviorist term when the addition of something strengthens or increases a behavior. (I.e. if you are good during photos, we'll get ice cream)
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What is an *object* and what is *object loss*?
In psychoanalysis, the term “object” refers to the target of one's love. Bowlby believed that an process of object loss can cause a child to be unable to bond. This sequence would go from **protest to despair to detachment.** Bowlby felt that if a child was unable to bond with an adult by 3 years old, he or she would be incapable of having normal adult relationships.
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Which gender has better verbal skills? Which gender has better visual-perceptual skills?
Eleanor Maccoby and Carol Jacklin found that girls ted to have better verbal skills and boys tend to have better visual-perceptual skills and are more active and aggressive than girls. While Maccoby and Jacklin found that most gender differences are due to sex role socialization, the tendency for boys to be more aggressive is one of the few things that can be attributed to biology.
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What is sibling rivalry?
In counseling, “sibling rivalry” refers to competition between siblings
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What is the primal scene?
The primal scene is a psychoanalytic concept that suggests that a young Childe witnesses his parents having sex or is seduced by a parent. The incident, whether real or imagined, can be an impetus for later neuroses.
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What is the preconscious psychic process?
This is an analytic term (also known as the “foreconscious”). It means that the preconscious mind is deeper than the conscious but not as deep as the unconscious. Preconscious material is not conscious but can be recalled without the use of psychoanalytic techniques.
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What is BASIC-ID?
This is an acronym posited by behaviorist Arnold Lazarus who feels his approach to counseling is multimodal, relying on a variety of therapeutic techniques.
BASIC-ID stands for: Behavior, Affective Responses, Sensations, Imagery, Cognitions, Interpersonal Relationships, and Drugs.
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What is animism and when does it occur in Piaget's stages? When in Piaget's t
Animism occurs when a child acts as if nonliving objects have lifelike abilities and tendencies. This occurs during Piaget's preoperational period (2-7)
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Who is Carl Jung and what are Jung's concepts of anima and animus?
Carl Jung is a Swiss psychiatrist considered the father of analytic psychology. The anima represents the females characteristics of personality while the animus represents the male characteristics (remember: “ma” = mother, so “anima” = female). Jung called the anima and animus “archetypes” which are inherited unconscious factors.
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What is Freud's concept of wish fulfillment?
Wish Fullfillment is the Freudian notion that dreams and slips of the tongue are actually wish fulfillments.
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What is the term “ego identity”?
This phrase is often associated with Erikson's 5th stage, identity vs. role confusion. When an adolescent is able to integrate all of his or her previous roles into a single self-concept, the person has achieved ego identity. An inability to accomplish this task results in role confusion, which is known as an identity crisis.
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When did elementary school counseling and guidance services become popular?
While counseling for high schools started in the early 1900s and increased rapidly in the 1960s, elementary school counseling is a fairly new development that did not even begin to gain momentum until the 1960s.
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Why did elementary school counseling services develop slowly in comparison to high school counseling services?
1. Most people initially believed that school teachers could double as counselors
2. counseling was conceptualized as focusing on vocational issues which was not relevant to kids
3. Secondary schools worked with social workers and psychologists who would intervene if emotional problems were still an issue as the child got older
Middle school/junior high counseling is an even more recent phenomenon, and we know less about these kids (ages 10-14) than other age groups, even though they experience more anxiety than their elementary or high school counterparts)
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What did research learn about the impact of elementary school counselors?
Research finds that elementary counselors are effective, do make a difference in kids' lives, and that more counselors should be employed. Elementary school counseling has been defined as the only organized profession to work with individuals from a purely preventative and developmental standpoint.
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What did Daniel J. Levinson learn about mens' midlife crises?
Levinson found that 80% of men in his study experienced midlife crises and that an “age 30 crisis” occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes. They found that developmental transitions were relatively universal in both white- and blue-collar men. Another theorists learned that these crises or “passages” are common among both men and women and can be utilized to reach one's potential.
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What does ‘generatively" refer to in Erikson's second-to-last phase, generatively vs. stagnation (ages 35-60)?
It refers to the ability to do creative work, raise a family, create a career, have leisure time, etc. Erikson believed that a person who does not go through this stage well becomes self-centered. (tip: generatively = “generation” – a successful individual at this stage plans for the next generation)
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Which of would Robert J. Havinghurst's stages would correspond to Erikson's middle-age (35-60) stage of generatively vs. stagnation?
Havinghurst would refer to this as the middle adult years. He created a developmental tasks theory and felt that the middle adult should achieve civic responsibility, maintain a home, guide adolescents, develop leisure, adjust to bodily changes, learn to relate to a spouse, and adjust to aging parents.
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What is the successful resolution of Erikson's integrity vs. despair stage?
Mastering integrity vs. despair, Erikson's final stage, means the person believes their life served a purpose.
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What is senile psychosis?
This term is when psychosis, a break from reality, is brought on via old age. At times, the term will be used in a looser sense to imply a loss of memory.
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What is generalized anxiety (or anxiety)?
In counseling, this refers to fear, dread, or apprehension without being able to pinpoint the exact reasons for the feeling. Anxiety is in contrast to a phobia, in which the client can pinpoint the source of fear.
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What is the DSM?
The DSM is a manual used to classify and label mental disorders so that all mental health practitioners will mean roughly the same thing when they classify a client. This branch of medicine which concerns itself with the classification of disease is known as **nosology** and the DSM is counselors' primary **nosological guide.**
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Why are play therapy and art therapy often preferable to traditional counseling?
Because cultural differences have less impact on these kinds of interventions.
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What is learned helplessness?
Learned helplessness connotes a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he or she is powerless to change and then begins to believe they have no control over the environment. That person can become easily depressed. This concept is generally associated with the work of positive psychology pioneer, Marin Seligman who experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs by giving them electric shocks in a harness. These dogs, unlike untrained dogs, didn't even try to escape the shocks when the harnesses were removed.
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What is risky shift phenomenon?
This term describes the fact that a group decision is typically more liberal than the average decision of an individual group member prior to participating in the group. The individual's initial stance will generally be more conservative than the group's decision.
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Who is Carl Rogers
Rogers was a humanistic therapist who created non directive counseling, later called client-centered counseling and, more recently, person-centered counseling.
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Who is Frank Parsons?
Frank Parsons has been called the father of guidance. He set up centers in the early 1900s to help people find work.
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What was Piaget's conceptualization of moral development?
Piaget suggested two major stages of moral development:
* the **heteronomous stage** (ages 4-7) - the child views rules as absolutes that result in punishment
* The **autonomous stage** (10+) - the child perceives rules as relative and can be altered or changed.
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What is a critical period?
A critical period is a time with an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process. A critical period marks the importance of both heredity and environment on development. Konrad Lorenz researched critical periods when he noticed the clear window for geese to imprint on their “mother" just after birth.
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What is “species-specific" behavior?
Some behavioral scientists refer to instinctual behavior as “species specific” which means that the behavioral trait occurs in every member of the species. The behavior is unlearned and universal.
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When does marital satisfaction typically increase and decrease?
Many studies agree that marital satisfaction generally is highest at the time of the wedding and then decreases with parenthood and often improves after a child leaves home.
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What is Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Maslow's hierarchy of needs postulated that people first need to fill lower-order physiological and safety needs before being able to fill higher-order needs like self-actualization. These higher order needs can also be referred to as **metaneeds.**
His theory has been dubbed humanistic psychology (since he thought analytic psychology and behaviorism both dehumanized people).
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How did Maslow research self-actualization?
He interviewed the best people he could find who escaped “the psychology of the average” - he wanted to work with those who transcended the average or normal existence.
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What is a structuralist viewpoint of development?
According to the structuralists, each stage is a way of making sense of the world. Piaget would be considered a structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative.
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What is counterbalancing?
An experimental process in which a researcher varies the order of conditions to eliminate irrelevant variables like fatigue or practice effects
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What is balance theory?
This suggests that individuals avoid inconsistent or incompatible beliefs – I.e. people prefer consistent believes
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What is ABA design?
This is research lingo in which A stands for the baseline, which is the behavior before an experimental procedure begins and B is the treatment. Then after the treatment is implemented, A (whatever the behavior in question is) is measured to see if there's a change.
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What is equilibration in Piaget's theories?
Piaget referred to the act of taking in new information as **assimilation**. This results in **accommodation** in which the child modifies his or her schemas to take in new information. Piaget called the balance between assimilation and accommodation **equilibration.**
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What do maturationists believe?
They believe that the mind is driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, placing limits on development. Maturationists would spend time allowing clients to work through early conflicts. Psychoanalysts and psychodynamic therapists fall into this category.
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What does Robert Kegan mean when he talks about a holding environment in therapy?
He is talking about a safe environment for a client to make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction. Kegan suggested 6 stages of life span development: incorporative, impulsive, imperial, interpersonal, institutional, and inter individual.
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How do children update their schemas in Piaget's stages?
schemas get updated and edited through **adaptation/assimilation** and **accommodation**, which are said to be complementary processes.
**Adaptation/assimilation** occurs qualitatively when the individual fits information into existing ideas
**Accommodation** is when the individual modifies schemata to incorporate new information
