Career development Flashcards
1
Q
What is trait-and-factor matching theory?
A
EG Williamson based on his knowledge of Frank Parsons, the father of guidance. It relies on test and assessments to match traits, aptitude, and interests with a given occupation.
2
Q
What is John Holland’s six personality and six work environments career typology?
A
This is visually depicted with a hexagon that includes 6 personality types and work environments. It goes by the acronym RIASEC.
- Realistic - machine shop worker or dog walker
- Investigative - researcher or chemist
- Artistic - singer or author
- Social - teacher or counselor
- Enterprising - sales personnel or business owner
- Conventional - secretary or file clerk.
Congruence between the person and the job is emphasized and the person is categorized using three digit codes such as SEC
3
Q
What is Donald super’s self-concept and developmental stage theory?
A
Also referred to as a life-span, life-space model. Vocational development is the process of developing and implementing a self-concept. As the self-concept becomes more realistic and stable, so does vocational choice and behavior. People choose occupations that permit them to express their self-concepts. Work satisfaction is related to the degree that they’ve been able to implement their self- concepts.
Development tasks
- crystallization - forming a general vocational goal
- specification - move from tentative to specific preference
- implementation - complete training, enter employment (25-44)
- stabalization - confirm choice through work experience
- consolidation - advance in career
His life rainbow helps clients conceptualize their roles as a child, student, leisure, citizen, worker, spouse, homemaker, parent, and pensioner.
4
Q
What is Anne Roe’s early childhood needs-theory approach?
A
Says vocational choice is related to personality development at a young age. Is the client person-oriented (teaching) or nonperson-oriented (computer programming)? Roe was influenced by Freudian psychoanalytic doctrines (importance of the parent-child relationship) as well as Maslow. Roe’s work has generated a wealth of research and the studies do not totally support this approach – however, it is extremely difficult to control the longitudinal variables involved. The Vocational Interest Inventory (VII) and the Career Occupational Presence System make use of Roe’s fields and level taxonomy.
5
Q
What is John Krumboltz’s learning theory of career counseling (LTCC)?
A
This was initially dubbed as a social learning theory. Said 4 factors can be used to simplify the career development process:
- Genetic endowment and unique abilities
- environmental conditions and life events
- learning experiences (either Pavlovian, social learning theory, or Skinnerian)
- Task approach skills (problem solving cognitive responses, and emotion patterns)
Research validates the original social learning theory but additional studies are needed to back up the newer learning theory of career counseling. This approach to counseling is considered a cognitive approach
6
Q
What is the Ginzburg group’s (also known as Ginzburg and Associates. Also known as Ginzburg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herma) developmental approach?
A
This theory was created by an economist, a psychiatrist, a sociologist and a psychologist and is the first developmental approach to occupational choice. Said the developmental stages are:
- Ages 11 and under - fantasy
- early adolescence - tentative
- 17-early adulthood - realistic
The group later dropped their original hypothesis that career choice was irreversible.
7
Q
What is Mark Savickas’s career construction postmodern theory?
A
Savickas, who worked with Donald Super, is critical of most traditional theories. His work is heavily rooted in narrative therapy in which the client’s life is viewed as a story he or she has constructed and intervention focuses on recurring themes to reauthor that story.
8
Q
What is Social cognitive counseling theory (SCCT)?
A
This theory focuses on how one’s belief system impacts career choice
9
Q
What is Linda Gottdredon’s theory of circumscription and compromise?
A
This is a developmental approach taking one’s childhood into account. There are two phases:
- Theory of circumscription - phase 1, rule out certain jobs not acceptable for gender, stereotypes, and social class
- compromise - phase 1 when you change your mind or major if career path is not truly realistica
Concept of social space refers to the zone or territory of jobs where he or she fits into society.
10
Q
What is Edgar H. Schein’s 8 career anchors theory?
A
Career anchors manifest approximately 5-10 years after a person begins work. Career anchors are based on the self-concept, abilities, and what the person is good at, and these anchors guide future career choices. Originally Schein identified 5 anchors but now 8 are used:
- autonomy/independence
- security/stability
- technical/funcitonal competence
- general managerial competence
- entrepreneurial creativity
- service/dedication to a cause
- pure challenge
- lifestyle
11
Q
When did lifestyle and career development begin to be emphasized?
A
Lifestyle and career development have been emphasized since the beginning of the counseling and guidance movement and are still major areas of concern. Note that the beginning of the guidance movement is associated with the work of Frank Parsons, who started the Boston Vocation Bureau in 1908 just before he died.
12
Q
Who is Frank Parsons?
A
Parsons is considered the father of guidance. He started the Boston Vocation Bureau in 1908 just 9 months before he died. HE was a Cornell graduate who later became Boston’s chief law clerk and then the dean of a liberal arts college. His landmark work, Choosing a Vocation was published posthumously. The Bureau was set up as.a civic service house and had hours in branches of the YMCA and the Women’s Educational and Industrial Union.
13
Q
How does career counseling trailblazer John O Crites feel about career counseling vis-a-vis therapy?
A
Crites feels that the need for career counseling exceeds the need for therapy and he feels that career counseling is more difficult than performing psychotherapy and can actually be therapeutic sine there is a clear positive correlation between career counseling and personal adjustment.
14
Q
What is the glass ceiling phenomenon?
A
The glass ceiling phenomenon suggests that women are limited in terms of far they can advance in the world of work. The glass ceiling effect is a form of occupational sex-role stereotyping that can limit women’s career. This concept is somewhat analogous to the lavender ceiling phenomenon which purports that the same basic notion is true for LGBTQ individuals. Gender-aware career counseling is a must.
15
Q
What is a “displaced homemaker”?
A
This is a phenomenon in which a woman with children who was a homemaker is now currently in need of work to support her family. Women who have made the transition from homemaker to jobs outside the home could be referred to as reentry women.
16
Q
How do students in high school and middle school feel about career counseling?
A
A very high proportion of students in HS and MS want career counseling, though career interests are often more stable after college. Students would generally like help in terms of career planning, and 50% of all college students have career difficulties.
17
Q
What is pervasive indecisiveness?
A
This is when someone has a lifelong pattern of severe anxiety relating to decision making. This can make deciding on a career much more difficult.
18
Q
What is Victor Vroom’s motivation and management expectancy theory?
A
Vroom suggests that an employee’s performance is influenced by:
- valence (will the work provide rewards like money, promotion, or satisfaction)
- expectancy (what does the person feel he or she is capable of doing)
- instrumentality (will the manager actually give the employee the promised reward such as a raise?)
19
Q
What are dual career families?
A
Dual career families are families in which both partners have jobs. Dual career families have higher incomes than the so-called traditional family in which only one partner works. That said, when both partners work, there are more problems relating to household chores and responsibilities. Today, over 54% of marriages are dual-wage earner marriages – and the figure is around 60% in families with children. This is in stark contrast to the 20% statistic from 1950.
Dual career couples often report a lack of leisure time which can turn into additional stress for both partners – though research shows that in most cases, dual-career households manage to spend as much time with their children as households with a single wage earner.
20
Q
In a dual-career family, when do women typically have children?
A
In dual-career families, the woman is typically secure in her career before having children. This is in contrast to the traditional model in which women had children before entering the workforce.
21
Q
What is the difference between vocational guidance and career counseling?
A
Guidance is seen as a developmental and educational process within a school system.
Career counseling is viewed as a therapeutic service for adults performed outside an educational setting.
22
Q
How does a bachelor’s degree impact earning potential?
A
On average, a worker with a bachelor’s degree earns over $10k a year more than a worker with a high school diploma. Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders have the highest percentage of individuals with a bachelor degree, followed by white people, African American people, and Latino/as.
23
Q
Has the number of workers with a high school diploma increased or decreased?
A
Increased
24
Q
Have blue collar jobs increased more or less rapidly as white-collar positions?
A
Blue collar jobs have increased more slowly as white-collar positions. This is likely based partially on the fact that the US has become.a service economy vs. focusing exclusively on the production of goods.
25
What do people mean when they talk about the “changing view of work”?
This phrase generally indicates that in the past, work was seen as drudgery while today it is seen as a vehicle to express identity, self-esteem and status. In the past, work was primarily a way to pay the bills and today, the rewards of a career are often conceptualized as fulfilling emotional needs. This implies that people who don't need to work will continue to do so – and this hunch was born out via research on lotto winners.
26
How do older workers compare to younger workers in terms of skill and speed?
Experience impacts job performance more than age – so older workers are more adept that younger works in both skill and speed.
This phenomenon disproved a notion in psychology known as **decrement** which suggests that speed, skills, and retention would decrease as one entered old age.
27
What do career counselors mean when they talk about **leisure?**
Leisure in this context refers to the time the client has away from work which is not being utilized for obligations. This is time when the individual is not at work and has the freedom to choose what he or she would like to do. Leisure time is said to be self-determined and can help compensate for dissatisfaction in the work place. Sometimes people define “career” as the total work one does in a lifetime plus leisure.
28
What is an avocation?
A leisure activity that one engages in for pleasure rather than money.
29
What is Title VII of the Civil Rights act?
Title VII, set forth in 1964 and updated in 1972 status that women should have equal work opportunities and equal job pay. Of course, there is still significant gender bias in the work place. The **Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)** is the watchdog for Title VII guidelines that prohibit discrimination n the basis of color, sex, religion, race or national origin.
30
What does the EEOC's Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures consider to be an “adverse impact” in terms of workplace discrimination?
The procedures speak of “adverse impact” if it does not meet the **80% four-fifths rule**. Here, the hiring rate for minorities is divided by the figure for non minorities. If the quotient is less than 80% (4/5), then adverse impact is evident.
31
What is “differential validity” as discussed in the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission's (EECO) Uniform Guidelines established in Title VII?
Differential validity is evident when a selection process (I.e. a test) is valid for one group but less valid or totally invalid for another. Tests plagued with differential validity should not be used for hiring or promotion purposes.
32
What is the trait-and-factor theory of career development?
This theory, considered the first major and most durable theory of career choice, assumes that via psychological testing, one's personality could be matched to an occupation which stresses those particularly personality traits. This assumes that there is one best or single career for the person. This has also been called the **matching approach** or **actuarial approach** which implies that empirical, statistical data is used (I.e. the results from a test) rather than simply relying on clinical judgement. Parson's work stressed a careful self-analysis under guidance – and then you'd match those traits to occupations using advice from people who had studied people, their jobs, and conditions for success.
Note that this model is sometimes classified as a **structural theory** because it emphasizes individual/structural difference.
Some industrial psychology exams will speak of ‘profile matching", when a job candidate’s personality or skills profile is matched to that of successful workers – and then hiring decisions are based on the closeness of the match of predictor scores.
33
What is the developmental approach to career development?
This approach views career decisions as longitudinal and reversible. Developmental approaches delineate stages or specify vocational choice in terms of a process which can change throughout the lifespan. Thus, vocational development parallels psychosocial, cognitive and personality development. Pioneers in this area include **Eli Ginzburg (**economist), **Sol Ginsburg** (psychiatrist), **Axelrad** (sociologist), **Herman** (psychologist). They are known for questioning the premise that career development was a single event. The theories proposed by Super and Tiedeman and O'Hara are also derived from developmental psychology.
34
Who is Edmund Griffith Williamson and what is his Minnesota Viewpoint?
Edmund Griffith Williamson was the chief spokesperson for the so-called Minnesota Viewpoint, which expended upon Parson's model to create a theory of counseling which transcended vocational issues. His work purposes to be scientific and didactic and utilizes data from instruments such as the **Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales.**
35
What populations are most career theories based on?
Middle class or upper middle class white males who are heterosexual and not disabled.
36
Which theorists are the trait-and-factor career counseling, actuarial, or matching approach most associated?
Parsons and Wliliams. CF Patterson from the University of Minnesota and he was another major proponent of this approach.
37
Is the trait-and-factor model grounded in differential psychology?
Yes. Differential psychology is the study of individual differences and that is what this model is based on. The assumption in this approach is that human beings are rational, so when there is proper information available (I.e. from tests), the person can make a wise choice about career.
38
What is a criticism of the trait-and-factor model?
The theory has been accused of being oversimplify because it subordinates personal choice making and advanced the idea of a single job for life. It assumes that an individual's traits can be measured so accurately that the choice of occupation is a one-time process. Computer career guidance programs often adhere to the trait-and-factor model.
39
Who are Roe and Brill?
This refers to Anne Roe and A. A. Brill who focused on personality theories of career choice.
40
Who is John Holland?
He suggested that a person's personality needs to be congruent with the work environment. RIASEC
41
Who is Donald Super?
A theorist who emphasized career development rather than career choice. He created a 5-stage life-span theory emphasizing that career choice is a developmental process based on the person's self-concept.
## Footnote
**Developmenal stages:**
**Growth (Birth to mid teens) -** Major developmental tasks are to develop a self-concept and to move from play to work orientation.
**Exploration (Mid teens through early 20’s) -** major tasks are to develop a realistic self- concept and implement a vocational preference though role tryouts and exploration; there is a gradual narrowing of choices leading to implementation of a preference. Preferences become CHOICES when acted upon.
**Establishment (mid 20’s through mid 40’s) -** major tasks are to find secure niche in one’s field and advance within it.
**Maintenance (40’s through early 60’s)** - Major task is to preserve one’s gains and develop non-occupational roles for things one always wanted to do; Little new ground is broken, one continues established work patterns. One faces competition from younger workers. Could be a plateau.
**Disengagement or Decline (Late 60’s through retirement)** - Tasks are deceleration of the career, gradual disengagement from world of work and retirement. One is challenged to find other sources of satisfaction. May shift to part time to suit declining capacities.
42
What are Parson's three steps to implement in the trait-and-factor model?
* knowledge of self and aptitudes and interests
* knowledge of jobs, including their advantages and disadvantages
* matching the person with the work.
Though today's career counselors do not practice from a pure trait-and-factor base, experts insist that remnants of this approach are still evident in some of the modern theories, including those suggested by John O. Crites, Donald Super, and John Holland.
43
What is the fourth force in counseling?
This is a term that has been suggested to describe multiculturalism. **Third force psychology** usually refers to humanistic approaches.
44
What is the Minnesota Occupational Rating Scales?
This is a test specifically aimed at enhancing the actuarial approach to career choice. It is used in Edmund Griffith Williamn's work, the Minnesota Viewpoint, which expands on the trait-and-factor approach.
45
What tests might a counselor who factors a personality theory of career selection use?
These counselors might use the Myers-Briggs, The Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey, the Advective Checklist, BDI, and MMPI-2. Current counselors are not a big fan of the testing/personality theory of career counseling and sarcastically refer to it as the “test-and-tell” paradigm.
46
What is psychometric data?
This refers to the use of test results in counseling, a practice which is stressed by trait-and-factor practitioners.
47
On which premise did Anne Roe based her personality approach to career change?
Anne Roe based her theory on the premise that a job satisfies an unconscious need. Her theory of career choice is based heavily on personality theory and some refer to Row's work as the **person-environment theory.** Her theory is primarily psychoanalytic, though it also draws on Maslow's hierarchy of needs. Her major propositions are that:
* satisfied needs do not become unconscious motivators
* higher order needs will disappear even if they are rarely satisfied but lower-order needs (I.e. safety) will be the major concern
* needs that are satisfied after a long delay will become unconscious motivators.
Roe emphasized that early child-reading practices influence later career choices since a job is a major source of gratification for an unconscious need.
48
What was Roe's Two-dimensional system of occupational classification?
Roe's two-dimensional system used **fields and levels,** in which “fields” were areas of career content and “levels” referred to the actual skill level**.**
She had 8 occupational fields including: services, business contact, organizations, technology, outdoor, science, general culture, and arts/entertainment
Her 6 levels of occupational skill include: professional and managerial 1 , professional and managerial 2, semiprofessional/small business, skill, semiskilled, and unskilled
49
What were Roe's 3 basic parenting styles and what did she think was the impact on a child's career?
Roe believed that parents fell into one of these 3 categories and that the child's experience with these different type of parents led them to develop a personality that gravitates either **toward people** **(**and would. thus choose “fields” of service, business, organization, and general culture) or **away from people** (would choose outdoor, science, or technology). The categories are:
* **Overprotective**
* **avoidant -** also known as a rejecting style that is emotionally cold or hostile
* **acceptant -** this is a democratic style.
Research suggests that an individual raised in a warm, accepting family where person-to-person interaction was rewarded would tend to seek out careers emphasizing contact with others (toward people) whereas a cold “avoiding” family of origin would be more likely to produce an individual who would shun person-oriented careers.
50
How does Roe's theory rely on Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
Roe's theory, like Maslow's, states that lower-order needs (the most urgent and basic needs) take precedence over higher-order needs.
51
Which psychological tests provide some support for Roe's theory?
The Rorschach and the TAT (Thematic Apperception Test) – both projective tests.
52
Does Roe believe that genetics play a role in career choice?
Yes. Roe believed that genetics help to determine one's intelligence and education and so this influences career choice. She believed that career choice is motivated by:
* genetics
* parent-child interaction
* unconscious motivators
* current needs
* interests (people/things)
* education
* intelligence
53
What is the difference between a job, an occupation, and a career?
* **Job** - this refers to a given position or similar positions within an organization
* **Occupation -** broader than a job and refers to similar jobs occupied via different people in different settings (I.e. psychotherapists)
* **Career -** this is the broadest category because it depicts a person's lifetime positions plus leisure.
54
Which other theorist, in addition to Anne Roe, emphasized unconscious processes in career choice?
Edwin Bordin. Bordin felt that career choices could be used to solve unconscious conflicts. That said, psychoanalytic approaches have never been particularly popular with helpers trained in counseling departments because short-term, time efficient modalities are stressed.
55
Who is Edgar H. Schein?
Edgar H. Schein proposed an approach using 8 “anchors”. The goal in his theory is to find an anchor that encompasses your career values, motives, and competence. This model lends itself best to a worker who has been in the workforce for a few years.
56
What did Edwin Bordin attribute job choice difficulties to?
Bordin thought job choice difficulties are indicative of neurotic symptoms.
57
A.A. Brill also drew upon psychoanalytic doctrine for career counseling theory. Which ego defense mechanism did he emphasize
Sublimnation. Sublimation occurs when a person expresses an unacceptable need in a socially acceptable manner (I.e. a person who likes to cut things up -→ surgeon).
58
Whose theory is currently the most popular approach to career choice?
John Holland's psychological needs theory. John Holland's theory can best be described by his four assumptions:
1. There are 6 basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional (RIASEC)
2. Most work environments correspond to 6 personality types
3. People search out an agreeable environment that lets them express their personality type
4. The individual's behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment.
Holland's **Self-Directed Search (SDS)** is designed to measure the 6 personality types.
59
What is John Holland's career choice theory?
John Holland's. John Holland's psychological needs theory can best be described by four assumptions:
1. There are 6 basic personality types: realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising, conventional (**R**osenthal **I**s **A S**uccessful **E**ducator **C**ounselor)
2. Most work environments correspond to 6 personality types
3. People search out an agreeable environment that lets them express their personality type
4. The individual's behavior is determined by an interaction of the personality and the environment.
Holland felt that people try to avoid environments which are disagreeable. He believed in career stereotypes – essentially that a person's psychologically defines himself through his job and he also believed that early childhood development influences adult personality types (like Roe). A lot of studies support his theory of personality types.
Holland's **Self-Directed Search (SDS)** is designed to measure the 6 personality types.
Although Holland's theory is usually dubbed as a personality theory, it has also been viewed as a trait-and-factor approach. But the conventional wisdom is that **Holland created a personality approach to career counseling.**
60
What is John Holland's Self Directed Search (SDS)
This is the measure Holland developed to measure his 6 personality types.
61
How would career counseling experts classify Roe, Brill, and Holland as theorists?
They would be considered personality theorists or structural theorists.
62
What role do counselors who support Holland's approach believe jobs allow people to do?
They would believe that an appropriate job allows one to express his or her personality.
63
In which of Holland's categories do teachers, counselors, SLPs, and social workers fit?
They would fit into the social category. Holland said the person in the social category prefers to solve problems using interpersonal skills and feelings.
64
What is Holland's “enterprising” personality category?
The enterprising person likes to sell to others or perform leadership tasks. He tends to value status and power. Enterprising occupations might include politicians, real estate agents, business owners, TV producers, and hotel managers
65
What is Holland's “realistic" or “motoric” personality category?
The realistic or motoric person likes machines. This individual might work on an assembly line, become a truck driver, and auto mechanic, or plumber.
66
What is Holland's investigative personality type?
The investigative personality type likes to think his or her way through.a problem. Occupations congruent with this type include scientists, design engineers, geologists, mathematicians, and philosophers.
67
What is Holland's artistic personality type?
Holland's artistic type seems to value feelings over pure intellect or cognitive ability. The artistic type shuns conformity and structure. The emphasis is on self-expression.
68
What is Holland's conventional personality type?
The conventional type values conformity, structure, rules, and feels comfortable in the subordinate role. Statisticians, bank clerks, and controllers fit this category.
69
How did Holland understand how people fit into his 6 personality categories?
Holland believed that most people are not pure personality types but can rather be best described by a distribution of types like Realistic, Social, Investigative (RSI). He believed that while each individual has a primary direction or type they can be best described using a profile over 3 areas known as a **three digit code.** Graphically, the 6 types generally are placed on a hexagon such that adjacent or consistent types are next to each other on the geometric figure. So, for example, RIA (realistic, investigative, artistic) would be **consistent** while Realistic, Artistic, Enterprising (RAE) would be **inconsistent**
70
What is Robert Hoppock's theory?
Hoppock's theory is considered a personality approach. It is based on the work of **Herny Murray**
71
Who is Henry Murray
Henry Murray created the **needs-press theory** and the **TAT projective test.** According to his theory, the occupation is used to meet a person's current need.
72
Who is Robert Rosenthal?
Rosenthal is famous for his researcher regarding the **experimenter effect**
73
Who were the pioneer theorists in developmental career theory (that career choice is an ongoing, longitudinal process vs. single decision made at one point in time)
Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad, and Herman. Until 1950, trait-and-factor or matching models were king. Then in 1951, Ginzberg and his associates began to emphasize developmental factors related to occupational choice. Based on a small research sample they concluded that occupational choice takes place over a 6-10 year period, the choice is irreversible, and always has the quality of compromise.
This theory postulated 3 stages:
* **Fantasy -** until age 11, based strongly on impulses
* **tentative -** 11-17 where interests and abilities are examined
* **realistic -** 17-early 20s where choice is made by weighing abilities and needs and making a compromise
They believed that exploration was said to lead to crsyallation. In 1972, however, Ginzberg modified his theory by stating that **the process of choice is open-ended and lifelong**. That refund the notion of irreversibility. He also replaced “compromise” with the concept of optimization, meaning that individuals try to make the best of what they have to offer and what is available in the job market.
74
What does Ginzberg and associates' modern development model of career choice assert?
In contrast to their early work, they now believe that the process of choosing a career doesn't end at age 20 or early adulthood, that career decisions are made throughout life, and that career choice is irreversible.
75
Who is the most popular developmental career theorist?
Donald Super. Super emphasizes the **self-concept.** The assumption here Is that the individual chooses a career which allows his self concept to be expressed.
76
What are the five stages in Super's life-span theory?
His stages are:
1. **Growth -** birth-14
2. **Exploration -** 15-24
3. **Establishment -** 24-44
4. **Maintenance** - 44-64
5. **Decline -** 65+
(GEE MD)
Developmental theorist like Super's emphasize longitudinal career-related behavior.
77
What is Super's **life-career rainbow?**
Super believed that a person can play a number of roles as he or she advance through the 5 stages. Those roles are: **parent, homemaker, worker, citizen, leisure, student** or **child.** Super called the graphic display of the roles unfolding over the life span the **career rainbow**. The roles get played out in the **theaters** of the home, community, school and work. As far as super is concerned, career can include student, employee, pensioner, retirement, civic duties, avocations, and even family roles.
78
What did John Crites research?
He researched the phenomenon of career maturity or “vocational maturity”.
79
Who is Nancy Schlossberg?
She has focused heavily on adult career development. She suggested 5 noteworthy factors:
1. behavior in the adult years is primarily determined by social rather than biological facts
2. behavior can either be a function of one's life stage or one's age at other times
3. sex differences are more powerful than age or stage differences
4. adults continually experience transitions which require adaptation and self-assessment
5. identity, intimacy, and generatively are recurring themes in adulthood
80
What is Tiedman and O'Hara's decision-making theory?
David Tiedeman and Robert O'Hara's decision-making theory refers to periods of anticipation and implementation/adjustment. They suggested that the decision process is best explained by breaking it down into a 2-part process. In the **anticipation stage**, the individual imagines him or herself in a given career. In the **implementation stage** (also sometimes called accommodation or induction) the person engages in reality testing regarding his or her expectations concerning the occupation. **All decision-making theories content that the individual has the power to choose from various career options.**
81
Which social learning theorist did John Krumboltz base his social learning approach to career choice?
Albert Bandura. Anita Mitchell, G. Brian Jones, and John Krumboltz utilized the work of Albert Bandura to explain career choice. Bandura emphasized the role of modeling in the acquisition of new behaviors. The theory states that people learn not only from the consequences of their own behavior but also from observing the consequences of others. Learning which takes place by watching others is sometimes called **vicarious learning**. Krumboltz felt that interests are the result of learning, such that changes in interests can be “learned”. Thus, actual exposure to a wide range of work settings (I.e. site visits) is highly desirable. Occupational indecisiveness is seen as an indication of an information deficit rather than a lack of career maturity. Two popular behavioral techniques associated with this work are the **RJP** and **Guided imagery.**
82
What is the RJP?
The RJP (realistic job preview) is a behavioral technique associated with the work of Krumboltz and others. To conduct an RJP, the student, usually in college, would contact a worker in the field and then interview the worker.
83
What is guided imagery, as used by social learning career theorists?
This is one of the behavioral techniques (along with the RJP) utilized by social learning career theorists like Krumboltz. Guided imagery is effective for both adults and adolescents and can be implemented by having the client imagine a day in the future working a certain job or even receiving an award for outstanding performance in that position.
84
What kind of model did Krumboltz suggest?
Krumboltz suggested a behavioristic model of career development. Some may categorize Krumboltz's theory as a decision-making theory or even a cognitive one. He believed that decision making – in terms of career options as well as non career options--is a skill which can be learned. Krumboltz acknowledged the role of genetics and the environment but focused on what can be changed via learning.
85
What is the human capital theory?
This theory purports that individuals secure training and education to get the best possible income. This theory, however, doesn't seem valid when applied to people of lower economic status.
86
What is the accident theory of career development?
This theory simply suggests that chance factors influence one's career. For example, a student liked his history teacher so he decided to become a history teacher himself.
87
What is the status attainment theory?
This theory posits that a child will eventually secure a job commensurate with his family status. This notion will not hold water with a child who has exceptionally high or low career aspirations (I.e. a lower-class child who insists she will become a doctor).
88
What are some techniques or strategies that may be used by counselors who favor a behavioristic mode of career counseling?
Behaviorists seem to want to allow people to learn about the job, so they may suggest a site visit to a work setting or use a strategy known as the **job club** that operates like a behaviorist group in which members share job leads and discuss or role play specific behaviors (I.e. interview skills) necessary for job acquisition. The club helps members learn from each other. The original model also utilized a classroom model for dispensing information. **Arzin** is one of the leading pioneers who created the specific guidelines for running a behavior modification token economy.
89
What is the Gelatt Decision Model?
This is a fairly recent model to explain career development. It was created by Harry b. Gelatt and refers to information as “the fuel of the decision”. **Decision-making theory asserts that although occupational choice is an ongoing process, there are times when a key decision must be made.**
The Gelatt Model asserts that information can be organized into 3 systems:
* **Predictive -** The **predictive system** is concerned with the probable alternatives, actions, and possibilites (I.e alternatives and the probability of an outcome)
* **Value -** The **person's value system** is concerned with one's relative preferences regarding the outcomes (personal likes, dislikes, and presences)
* **Decision =** The **decision system** provides rules and criteria for evaluating the outcome (personal rules)
90
What is Linda Gottfredson's developmental theory of career?
Her theory focuses on **circumscription** and **compromise theory.** There is not a ton of information on this theory, but according to Gottfredson, people do restrict choices (**circumscription**) and when people do compromise in terms of picking a job (and indeed she feels they do), they will often sacrifice the field of work before they sacrifice sex-typed behavior or prestige.
91
What is the OOH?
OOH stands for the *Occupational Outlook Handbook.* The OOH was originally published by the US department of Labor in 1949 to aid WWII veterans. The Occupational Outlook Handbook is revised every 2 years and highlights the salient factors of the job, necessary training, earnings, and advancement opportunities. It also discusses job prospects for the future. Since 1994, it has also been accessible online. It is the top career-information source in the country.
92
How many jobs did the DOT (Dictionary of Occupational Titles) list at its zenith?
At its zenith, the DOT listed approximately 20,000 job titles. This is the largest, most comprehensive source and it was used more than any other printed resource on the field and has been published by the Department of Labor since 1938. The DOT is similar for the DSM but the DOT provides a system of classification for career counselors.
93
What is the Occupational Information Network (O\*NET)?
The Occupational Information Network (O\*NET) became a virtual replacement for the DOT in 1991. The new O\*NET lists far fewer occupations than the old DOT. Many highly specialized jobs that only a small number of individuals work have been dropped. There are still books called DOT but they are no longer published by the Department of Labor.
94
How were jobs coded in the DOT?
Each job was given a nine digit code. The first 3 digits designated the occupational category and divisions, whereas the middle 3 described tasks in relation to data, people, and things, respectively. The final digits helped alphabetize the titles.
The first digit in the DOT designated one of 9 occupational categories (I.e. 0/1 professional, technical, and managerial careers; 2 clerical and sales careers, etc etc).
95
What is the best place to find detailed statistics about the average wage in each state?
The Bureau of Labor Statistic website
96
What are *Choices* and the System of Interactive Guidance and Information (SIGI)?
Choices is a software program for high school students that provides information to help them make informed decisions about career and transition planning. SIGI 3 is a self-assessment software and web-based program that helps college students and adults pick a major and a career based on their own values, interests, and education.
97
What should a counselor consult to learn more about the trends in the job market?
The OOH
98
What is the SIC?
This is the Stanford Industrial Classification manual, which classifies businesses in regard to the type of activity they are engaged in (I.e. type of product or device). Industry growth was often computed on SIC codes but it was revised in 1987 due to criticism.
99
What is underemployment?
This occurs when a worker is engaged in a position which is below his or her skill level. This phenomenon can occur when an abundance of educated people flood the labor market which does not have enough jobs that require a high level of training. Hence, as more people go to college, the rate of underemployment is expected to increase.
100
How many jobs does the average person have in a lifetime?
About 11. Advocates for a constructivist approach like Savickas point to this as a sign that the old trait factor or matching where a career prescription is proposed is outdated.
101
Which cognitive theorist is self-efficacy theory based on?
Albery Bandura. Bandura proposed that one's belief or expectation of being successful in an occupation causes the individual to gravitate towards that particular occupation. Bandura felt that "chance factors' such as accidentally being exposed to certain situations influence career development.
102
What are some examples of Computer-Assisted Career Guidance Systems (CACG)?
The System of Interactive Guidance and Inforatin (SIGI) and *Choices.* These could also be called Computer-Based Career Information Systems (CBCIs).
103
What is the Contrast effect?
In psychology, contrast refers to a heightened sense of awareness regarding the difference between the successive juxtapositions of two stimuli. In career placement settings, the term has been used to suggest that an interviewer's impression of an interviewee is often affected by previous interviewees. So, for example, a typical applicant would look more impressive if she is interviewed after a string of ill-prepared applicants. Unfortunately, the converse is also true.
104
What is the compensatory effect?
This suggests that a worker compensates or makes up for things that he or she can't do o the job. Thus, a librarian who must be quiet from 8-5 would go out after work and get wild, crazy, and loud. work can also help people compensate for things missing in one's family life.
Some may refer to the compensatory effect in a psychodynamic fashion, which says that someone might compensate for poor job satisfaction by excelling in activities outside of work.
105
What is spillover?
This is when an individual's work spills over into her time off the job. When spillover takes place, the person can talk about work with other family or household members and engages in activities similar to work during periods of leisure. When work and family are kept separate, it is called **segmentation.**
The connection between family and work is known as **work interface.**
106
What is the recency effect?
This occurs when a rater's judgement of an employee reflects primarily his or her most recent performance. This is undesirably as the employee's performance over the entire rating period should be noted.
107
What is the leniency/strictness bias?
This occurs when a rater tends to give employees very high/lenient or very low/strict ratings while avoiding the middle or so-called average range. Rather who do the opposite (I.e. rate everyone in the average range) are said to display a **central tendency bias.**
108
What organization did the National Vocational Guidance Association fused with in 1952?
The American Personnel and Guidance Association (APGA).
109
What does lifestyle include?
Lifestyle is a broad term which describes the overall balance of work, leisure, family, and social activities. Some use the word **avocational** instead of leisure
110
What is the Strong Interest Inventory (SCII)?
This test, based on John Holland's theory, indicates how an examinee's likes and dislikes were similar to the likes and dislikes of workers in various occupations. **The SII measures interests, not abilities.**
Though the original versions of the test were different for men and women, recent efforts have been aimed towards eliminating sex bias in the test. The test consists of 291 items and takes 30-45 minutes and is based on John Holland's typology. The examinee responds to questions using a forced choice format of “strongly like, like, indifferent…etc” The inventory is suited to high school, college, and adult populations and must be computer scored.
The test assumes that a person who is interested in a given subject will experience satisfaction in a job with workers who have similar interests.
111
What is the Self-Directed Search (SDS)?
This is an assessment introduced by John Holland to help those who did not have access to professional career counseling. The test is self-administered, self-scored, and self-operated and yields a score on his 6 types. The measure provides a 3-letter code such as (EIR or ISC) to describe the individual's personality type.
Holland warned that the test is not suitable for a grossly disturbed, uneducated, or illiterate person. The SDS is also not recommended for those who have a great deal if difficulty making decisions.
112
What are the regulations for sedentary, light, medium, and heavy work?
* **Sedentary -** max lifting is up to 10lbs
* **Light work:** max lifting is up to 20lbs
* **Medium work -** max lifting is 50lbs
* **Heavy work:** max lifting is up to 100lbs
* **Very heavy work:** max lifts exceed 100 lbs
113
What is the “hidden job market”
This is the concept that most jobs are not advertised and this is why networking is so important.
114
What does the SDS score reveal?
The SDS (Self-Directed Search) reveals the individual's 3 highest scores based on Holland's personality types. The SDS provides the user with a 3-letter code that indicates the 3 personality types the person most resembles.
115
What is an occupational finder?
An occupational finger describes numerous occupations in order to ascertain which occupations best match the personality type. A special occupational finder is available to investigate careers and occupations for the military and veterans.
116
Which career theorist is mostly likely to use a drawing of a hexagon?
John Holland.
117
What is the Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS)?
The Kuder Career Planning System (KCPS) offers career planning and online education for people from kindergarten through adulthood. There are different forms of the programs for different age groups.
118
What is the PPVT (Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test)?
This test is a measure of hearing or receptive vocabulary and a screening test of verbal ability that can be used for kids under 3 through those over 90. The PPVT takes under 15 minutes and requires no reading skills.
119
What is the difference between dual earner and dual career families?
Generally speaking, the dual-career family has a job where advancement is possible versus the dual-earner family, which is characterized by job positions where moving up the line is either not possible or minimal. Statistically, dual-wage earning couples are now the norm.
120
What movement did the occupational aptitude tests (O\*NET ability profiler or the Differential Aptitude test, etc) grow out of?
These tests all great out of the trait-and-factor movement related to career counseling. The primary purpose of any aptitude test is to predict future performance, though career placement should never rest solely on a single source of data such as the aforementioned tests. Note that an aptitude test does not test achievement/knowledge but rather whether you could capture these skills with proper training and experience – they attempt to measure potential.
121
What is a displaced homemaker?
Someone who stayed home to raise children but is looking for employment now that the kids are grown or she is divorced or widowed.
122
How does a job analysis differ from a job evaluation??
A **job analysis** refers to a procedure where tasks, duties, skills, required education, safety issues, and other data are examined. A job analysis can lead to a job description or job specifications.
A **job evaluation** rates the value of the job within the organization to decide what it should pay. It does not rate the person performing the job in question.
123
What is occupational sex segregation?
The concept of **occupational sex segregation** suggests that female occupations generally pay less and lack the status of male occupations.
Research also shows that women who have the same intelligence, skills, and potential as a man will often have lower career aspirations than a man. Fitzgerald and Crites discovered that even when girls manifest higher career maturity than boys, their aspirations are lower.
124
What is a **dislocated worker?**
This is someone who loses his or her job because a company downsizes or relocates. It can also refer to a person who has an obsolete set of job skills.
125
How rare is midlife career change?
It is not that unusual. This shift usually takes place between 35-45 and additional training is often needed. Preciptating factors for the change include divorce, having a baby, caring for a disabled child, empty nest syndrome, and job dissatisfaction.
126
What is a reentry woman?
This term refers to women who go from working within the home to working outside the home. Reentry women typically experience an extremely high degree of career indecision.
127
What must counselors doing multicultural career counseling be aware of?
They must be aware of their own ethnocentric biases. The counselor has to be aware of his own stereotypical attitudes.
128
How does the supply and demand curve impact the labor market?
The number of employees that employers want to hire goes down as salary goes up – and the number of employees willing to work for an employer goes up as salary increases.
129
Who espoused the career anchor theory?
Schein.
130
What is Tiedman and Ohara's career theory?
Tiedman and Ohara proposed a decision-making developmental theory based on Erikson's psychosocial stages. In their theory, every decision is characterized by anticipation and implementation.
131
What is the in-basket technique?
This technique is a job simulation used by hiring committees who are assessing candidates for a managerial position. In the simulation, the job candidate is given a basket (or package) of materials, including memos, emails, phone messages, requests for presentations, data reports, and complaints that a manager would encounter wafering being off work for a while. The person making the hiring decision then monitors how the candidate makes decisions, prioritizes, pays attention to detail, delegates, and responds to correspondence. This technique is very popular with formal assessment centers and the applicant is expected to communicate why he or she is choosing the responses.
132
What kind of group are Azrin's job clubs?
This is an example of a behvariotistic group strategy in that the clients share job leads and work on actual skills (I.e. interviewing) that are necessary to secure work. Job clubs are highly recommended for the disabled.
133
How does the selective-placement philosophy (behavioristic) play out differently than a client-centered approach?
In the client-centered approach to career counseling, the counselor lets the client find his or her own leads and job contact. A counselors who believes in the **selective placement philosophy** may give the client job leads and may take an active stance in working with the client. The selective approach is preferable with clients who lack the concrete skills necessary to land a job. The job-finding club is an example of a behavioristic group strategy.
134
Which theorist would most likely say we choose a job to meet our needs?
Robert Hoppock. He feels that in order to make an accurate career decision, you must know your personal needs and find an occupation that meets a high percentage of the needs. And as your personal needs chance, you might need to secure a different occupation.
135
What is John O. Crites best known for?
Crites is best known for his Career Maturity Inventory that measures attitudes and competencies related to the career choice process.
