Counseling and helping relationships Flashcards

Question

What is catharsis and/or abreaction?

Answer 1

The curative process of talking about difficulties in order to purse emotions and feelings. Sometimes “catharsis” is used to connote a mild purging of emotion and “abreaction” when the outburst is very powerful and violent. Freud and Breuer originally use the term to describe highly charged repressed emotions released during the hypnotic process.

Answer 2

These are techniques heavily emphasized in Rogerian, client-centered (now called person-centered) therapy. Rogerians do not emphasize diagnosis or giving advice.

Answer 3

Hypnosis, slips of the tongue (**parapraxis)** and humor, and dreams.

Answer 4

This is a concept used in forming a hierarchy to perform Wolpe's systematic densensitization. The SUDS is created via the process of introspection by rating the anxiety associated with the situation. Generally the scale most counselors use is 0-100 with 100 being the most threatening situation.

Answer 5

The conscious mind is aware of the immediate environment whereas the preconscious mind is capable of bringing ideas, images, and thoughts into awareness with minimal difficulty. The preconscious can access information from the conscious as well as the unconscious mind.

Answer 6

The unconscious mind is composed of material which is normally unknown or hidden from the client

Answer 7

Unconscious processes which serve to minimize anxiety and protect the self from severe id or superego demands. The id strives for immediate satisfaction while the superego is ready and willing to punish the ego via guilt if the id is allowed to act on such impulses. This creates tension and pressure within the personality. The ego controls the tension and relieves anxiety by utilizing ego defense mechanisms. Simply put, ego defense mechanisms are unconscious strategies which distort reality and are based on self-deception to protect our self-image.

Answer 8

Repression. A child who is sexually abused, for example, may repress (I.e. truly forget) the incident. In later life, the repression that served to protect the person and helped her through the event can cause emotional problems. Psychoanalytically trained counselors can help the client recall the repressed memory and make it conscious so they can deal with it.

Answer 9

This is a defense mechanism in which a person can't accept a given impulse in themselves and so act in the opposite way (I.e. Asa can't tolerate being called a baby or a person who is obsessed w/stamping out pornography but who is unconsciously involved in it so he can look at the material). The person acts the opposite way of how they actually feel.

Answer 10

Denial is a defense mechanism that is similar to repression except it's a conscious act. An individual who says, “I refuse to think about it” is displaying suppression and denial

Answer 11

This is when a person acts out an unconscious impulse in a socially acceptable way. I.e. a very aggressive person may become a football player.

Answer 12

repression is automatic or involuntary

Answer 13

This is an intellectual excuse to minimize hurt feelings - I.e. “I'm glad I didn't get good grades, only nerds get good grades”

Answer 14

This is a defense mechanism that occurs when an impulse is unleashed at a safe target. The prototypical example is when someone is furious with his boss so he comes home and kicks the dog.

Answer 15

This is a defense mechanism in which a child accepts a parent's, caretaker's, or significant other's values as his own – I.e. a sexually abused child may attempt to sexually abuse other kids. Sometimes introjection causes the person to accept an aggressor's values - I.e. a prisoner of war might incorporate the value system of the enemy.

Answer 16

This is a defense mechanism which results when a person identifies with a cause or successful person with the unconscious hope that she will be perceived as worthwhile. OR that identification with the other serves to lower the fear or anxiety towards that person.

Answer 17

This is a statistical term which means that a researcher has accepted a null hypothesis (I.e. that there is no difference between an experimental and control group) when it is false.

Answer 18

It's a type of rationalization (an intellectual reasoning that supports the outcome you got) known as “I didn't really want it anyways”

Answer 19

It is a form of rationalization in which a person tells you how wonderful a distasteful set of circumstances really is.

Answer 20

This is a term usually associated with Alfred Adler who pioneered a theory known as individual psychology. It refers to the sense of being deficient or somehow less than others as a result of negative feelings about any type of real or imagined abnormality of organ function or structure. It is interesting to note that Adler was a very sickly child. For him, the major psychological goal is to escape deep-seated feelings of inferiority.

Answer 21

This is a defense mechanism in which someone attributes unacceptable qualities of his or her own to others.

Answer 22

This is a defense mechanism when someone tries to overdevelop a positive trait to make up for a limitation. The person secretly hopes that others will focus on the positives rather than the negative factors.

Answer 23

That many aspects of his theory or difficult to test or measured.

Answer 24

Freud's concept of an object that represents a family or a group. He wrote about it on the totem, the taboo, and the dread of incest. Freud felt that even primitive people feared incestuous relationships and that the dread of incest is not merely instilled by modern societies.

Answer 25

To make clients aware of their unconscious behaviors.

Answer 26

In individual psychology, created by Alfred Adler, the term “individual” refers to the unique qualities we each possess. Individual psychology is keen on analyzing organ inferiority and methods in which the individual attempts to compensate for it. It is interesting to note that Adler was a very sickly child. For him, the major psychological goal is to escape deep-seated feelings of inferiority.

Answer 27

Wolfgang Kohler is a gestalt psychologist who spent time at the turn of the century on the island of Tenerife where he studied chimps and apes. He showed moments of insight (I.e. figuring out new solutions) in the apes and called them and “insight experience”.

Answer 28

* Reinforcement - operant conditioning * Association - classical conditioning * Insight

Answer 29

Logos implies logic while eros refers to intuition.

Answer 30

When a client is attached to their therapist as if he or she is a substitute parent.

Answer 31

When the counselor's strong feelings or attachment to the client are strong enough to hinder the treatment process.

Answer 32

Jung, the father of analytic psychology, borrowed the term "mandala' from Hindu writings. In Jung's writings, the mandala can stand for a magic protective circle that represented self-unification. He used these drawings balanced around a center point to analyze himself, his clients, and dreams.

Answer 33

This is the ability to remember the most minute details of a scene or picture for an extended period of time. This ability is usually gone by the time a child reaches adolescence.

Answer 34

The drive for superiority. Adler initially felt that aggressive drives were responsible for most human behavior, then altered it saying it was the “will to power” then finally altered it and said it was the striving for superiority or a thirst to perfection.

Answer 35

Newer constructivist theories stress that it is imperative that we as helpers understand the client's view (also known as constructs) to explain his or her problems. Two popular types of constructivist therapy include: * **brief therapy -** examines what worked for a client in the past * **narrative therapy -** looks at stories in the client's life and attempts to rewrite or reconstruct the stories when necessary

Answer 36

Adler believed that sibling interactions might have more impact than parent-child interactions. Adler broke with Freud in 1911 and went on to found a number of child guidance clinics where he was able to observe children' behavior directly, thus countering one of the biggest criticisms of Freud which is that his theories were not based on extensive research or observations of children' behavior

Answer 37

The Neo-Freudians emphasized social factors. Neo Freudians such as Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson, Harry Stack Sullivan, and Erich Fromm stressed the importance of cultural (social) issues and interpersonal (social) relations.

Answer 38

This is a behaviorist term that indicates the frequency that a behavior is manifested prior to or without treatment.

Answer 39

This is a concept popularized by Carl Rogers who felt that the counselor must care for the client even when the counselor is uncomfortable or disagrees with the client's position. The counselor accepts the client just as he is.

Answer 40

Introversion meant a turning in of the libido. Thus an introverted individual is his or her primary source of pleasure. Such a person will shy away from social settings. Extroversion is the tendency to find satisfaction and pleasure in other people. The extrovert seeks external rewards.

Answer 41

Carl Jung. This test, given to millions of people each year, is based on Volume 6 of Jung's collected works from the 1920s. The measure is used to assess people 12+ and looks at 4 bipolar scales: Introversion vs. extroversion, sensing (current perception) vs. intuition (future abstractions and possibilities), thinking vs. feeling and judging (organizing and controlling the outside world) vs. perceiving (observing events:

Answer 42

Dreikers was a student of Adler's who was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice. He also introduced Adlerian principles to the treatment of children in a school setting.

Answer 43

It is a projective test in which the client is shown a series of pictures an asked to tell a story. This test was introduced in Henry Murray's 1938 work, “explorations in personality”. Murray called the study of personality **personology.**

Answer 44

Abraham Maslow

Answer 45

Adler believed that people wish to belong and that we all need each other. This is his theory of social connectedness.

Answer 46

This is a term coined by Jung that implies all humans have “collected” universal, inherited unconscious neural patterns.

Answer 47

Adler was one of the first therapists who relied on paradox. Paradoxical techniques are also associated with the work of Victor Frankl who pioneered logo therapy, a form of existential treatment. Paradoxical strategies often seem to defy logic as the client is instructed to intensify or purposely engage in the maladaptive behavior. Paradoxical interventions are often the direct antithesis of common sense. these methods have become very popular with family therapists due to the work of Jay Haley and Milton Erikson. Currently this technique is popular with family therapists who believe it reduces a family's resistance to change.

Answer 48

archetypes. An archetype is a primal universal symbol which means the same thing to all men and women (I.e. the cross). Jung perused literature and found that certain archetypes have appeared in fables, myths, dreams, and religious writings since the beginning of recorded history.

Answer 49

* The persona -the mask or role with present to others to hide our true self * animus, anima, and self * Shadow - the mask behind the persona with contains id-like material (denied yet desired). The shadow represents the unconscious opposite of the individual's conscious expression. (I.e. a shy person may have recurring dreams of being outgoing, verbal, etc). The nature of shadow is also evident when someone engages in projection. The clinical assumption is that projection will decrease and individuation will increase when therapy renders shadow behaviors conscious

Answer 50

Confrontation is when a counselor points something out to a client

Answer 51

This occurs when a counselor is able to experience the client's point of view in terms of feelings and cognitions. Empathy is a subjective understanding of the client in the here and now. Empathy deals with the client's perception rather than your own.

Answer 52

This is whenever a counselor brings together the ideas discussed during a period of dialog.

Answer 53

ACT is a mindfulness-based behavior therapy that is not focused on symptom reduction. ACT wants clients to take effective action in their lives. The goal is to perceive feelings and thoughts as harmless, albeit uncomfortable. According to ACT, most of us will experience psychological suffering as a result of our own mental process. Therapy is aimed at helping clients stop struggling with their private experiences and assist them in taking action towards the life they want. ACT suggest that struggling with negative feelings makes them worse.

Answer 54

This is a psychoanalytic concept that says if you merely deal with a symptom, another symptom will manifest itself since the real conscious is in the unconscious mind. By contrast, behaviorists strive for symptom reduction and do not believe in the concept of symptom substitution.

Answer 55

Frederick C. Thorne. Thorne felt true eclecticism was more than a hodgepodge of facts and rather needed to be rigidly scientific. He preferred the term psychological case handling rather than psychotherapy as he felt that the efficacy of psychotherapy had not been adequately proven.

Answer 56

Cognitive dissonance refers to the way in which humans feel quite uncomfortable if they have two incompatible or inconsistent beliefs and thus the person will be motivated to reduce the dissonance.

Answer 57

Adlerians believe that our lifestyle is a predictable self-fulfilling prophecy based on our psychological feelings about ourselves. He stressed the importance of birth order in the family (I.e. a firstborn could be dethroned by a later child and could thus be prone to feelings of inferiority). Firstborns often go to great lengths to please their parents. A second child will often try to compete with a firstborn and often surpasses the first child's performance and a middle child often feels he or she is being treated unfairly and can be seen as quite manipulative. The youngest child or baby can be pampered or spoiled but often excel by mimicking the older children' behavior.

Answer 58

Adlerians stress the clients long for a feeling of belonging and strive for perfection. Adlerians, like REBT practiociners, are didactic and use homework assignments. Adler might ask, “what would life be like if you were functioning in an ideal manner?” Then the counselor asks the client to act as if he or she didn't have the problem.

Answer 59

Existentialism is a philosophy and logo therapy is a type of psychology which great out of the philosophy of existentialism.

Answer 60

This is a theory that ideas are held together with associations. This philosophy led to the development of behaviorism.

Answer 61

The law of effect simple asserts that responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated while those that produce unpleasantness will be stamped out. This was an initial theory that BF Skinner's behaviorism elaborated on.

Answer 62

Lazarus worked very closely with Joseph Wlope and Wolpe's multimodal approach. Although it was very holistic, it has a strong behavioral treatment slant. When practicing multimodal therapy, the counselor focuses on 7 key modalities or areas of the client's functioning: * **B -** Behavior including acts, habits, and reactions * **A** - Affective responses such as emotions, feelings, and mood * **S -** sensation including hearing, touch, sight, smell, and taste * **I -** Interpersonal relationships * **D -** Drugs (including alcohol, legal, illegal, and prescription and diet)

Answer 63

Pavlov's work relates to classical conditioning. He won a Nobel prize for his work o

Answer 64

This is an approach, created by EG Williamson, that attempts to match a client's trait with a career. This is often also called the **trait-factor** approach.

Answer 65

A conditioned stimulus is an association that is learned. An association that naturally exists, like animal salivation is known as an **unconditioned response** (UR or UCR). Some may refer to the CS as the NS or **neural stimulus** and the UCS as the **reinforcing** or **charged stimulus.**

Answer 66

The acquisition period refers to the time it takes to learn or acquire a given behavior.

Answer 67

Instrumental learning. (Skinner's last name has an “I” just like “instrumental”)

Answer 68

Reflexes. This relates to the theoretical notions of Pavlovian conditioning. Pavlov's theory involves mainly reflexes, like when a dog salivates.

Answer 69

Reinforcers--both positive AND negative--are things that raise the probability that an antecedent (prior) behavior will occur. In a situation with **positive reinforcement**, something is added following an operant behavior. It's possible to use positive reinforcers to reduce or eliminate an undesirable target behavior - I.e if a healthy alternative behavior is positively reinforced. In the case of **negative reinforcement** something aversive is taken away after the behavior occurs. (I.e. if you do what you're told I'll stop that loud noice). Plastic tokens can be used as **secondary reinforcers** which reinforce by association. (I.e. a plastic token could be exchanged for a trip to a baseball game, etc)

Answer 70

No. Negative reinforcement is not punishment. All reinforcers raise or strengthen the probability that a behavior will occur and punishment lowers the probability that a behavior will occur. In the case of a negative reinforcer, it generally provides relief. I.e. if you take a pill and it removes pain, you are more likely to take it the next time you are in pain because it gave you relief.

Answer 71

Punishment is something that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur. Behavior modifiers value reinforcement over punishment. William Glasser, father of reality therapy, lists 8 steps for effective treatment and step 7 is to not punish.

Answer 72

.5 or half a second. As the interval exceeds half a second, more trials are needed for effective conditioning. And the conditioned stimulus (CS - I.e. the bell) ALWAYS comes before the unconditioned stimulus (UCS - I.e. the meat that caused dogs to salivate). In this example, the meat is also the reinforcer – the thing that encourages the behavior of salivation.

Answer 73

When the CS is delayed until the UCS occurs

Answer 74

When the CS terminates before the occurrence of the US (I.e. if the bell had stopped ringing by the time the meat came out). Hint: trace begins with T and so does “termination”

Answer 75

This typically results in no conditioning. When you arrange things in this way, conditioning just doesn't work. This is called **backward conditioning** and is ineffective and doesn't work. Also, if the bell and the meat are presented at the exact same time, this is called **simultaneous conditioning** and conditioning also does not occur under these circumstances.

Answer 76

Stimulus generalization, or what Pavlov deemed **irradiation** or also called **second-order conditioning** occurs when a similar stimulus to the CS produces the same reaction as the CS itself.

Answer 77

An unconditioned response. In an experiment like Pavlov's, even though the dog would learn to salivate when he hears a bell, the response to salivate when he sees meat will still be more powerful. And the response we see in stimulus generalization is weaker than the response produced by the original conditioning.

Answer 78

This is the opposite of stimulus generalization, in which the learning process is fine tuned to respond to only specific stimulus. This is also referred to as **stimulus differentiation.**

Answer 79

Pavlov termed the phenomenon when you are trying to get the subject to differentiate between nearly indistinguishable stimuli and the subject shows signs of emotional disturbance. I.e. “stop, you're driving this dog crazy”

Answer 80

Extinction is when the UCS happens but is no longer paired with the CS - then the association will disappear. This is classical extinction which is different than operant extinction. Sometimes, however, the association will reappear if, after extincition, the CS is reintroduced. This is called **spontaneous recovery**. In Skinnerian or operant conditioning, extinction connotes that reinforcement is withheld and eventually the behavior will be extinguished. Example: 6 year old sticks out her tongue at counselor, counselor is obviously ignoring the behavior (disconnecting the UCS - tongue - from the CS - the reaction). Ignoring behavior, like time out, is a common example of extinction.

Answer 81

Little Albert's. Watson conducted the Little Albert case that demonstrated that some fears are learned and not the result of unconscious conflict.

Answer 82

This is a behavioristic term. A chain is a sequence of behaviors in which one response renders a cute that the next response is to occur. When writing a sentence and place a period at the end, it is a sign that the net letter will be uppercase. In behavior modification, simple behaviors are learned and then “chained” so that a complex behavior can take place. A chain is just a series of operants joined together by reinforcers.

Answer 83

Behavior modification is Skinnerian (operant conditioning, positive/negative reinforcers etc) while behavior therapy is Pavlovian (classical, respondent - when you link an unconditioned response to a conditioned response)

Answer 84

The baseline indicates the frequency of the behavior untreated and is sometimes signified in the literature of a chart using an upper-case A

Answer 85

Neal Miller Is the first person to conduct a study demonstrating that animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes. His and Ali Banuazizi's study showed that by utilizing rewards, rats could be trained to alter heart rate and intestinal contractions. Prior to this experiement, people thought autonomic process couldn't be controlled. Today, counselors often use the technique of biofeedback to help clients control autonomic responses.

Answer 86

Just as John B Watson showed a phobia could be learned with the little Albert experiment, Mary Cover Jones demonstrated that learning could serve as treatment for a phobic reaction.

Answer 87

NLP is the brainchild of linguistics professor John Cringer and the mathematician/computer experit John Bandler. These outsiders to the helping professions watched expert helpers (Milton Erikson, etc) to discover what these therapists really did vs. what they said they did.

Answer 88

Agoraphobia is the fear of leaving home. The fear might take place in a wide open space, a public place, or a closed place such as an airplane, bus, etc where panic might prove awkward and embarrassing.

Answer 89

A treatment model.

Answer 90

This is a counseling paradigm in which the therapist leads the client to discuss certain topics and provides direct suggestions about how the client should think, act, or behave.

Answer 91

Concreteness is also known as specificity in some literature. The counselor uses the principle of concreteness in an attempt to eliminate vague language, “I.e. ”can you tell me specifically what has made life so bad for the last 6 months?"

Answer 92

Biofeedback does not change the client, it merely provides the client and helper with biological information such that the client can master self-regulation. A scale and a minor are two simple examples. In counseling, biofeedback devices are used to teach clients to relax or control autonomic

Answer 93

Congruence in counseling is the same as genuineness - the counselor's ability to be him or herself. This is a counselor who is not playing a role or putting up a facade.

Answer 94

It's BF Skinner's label for any behavior which is NOT elicited by an obvious stimulus . Most behaviors are operants. Skinner differentiated operants from **respondents.** A respondent is a consequence of a known stimulus – I.e. a dog salivating to good is a respondent. (so this is why Pavlovian conditioning is also called respondent conditioning)

Answer 95

With a negative reinforcer, the behavior increased or strengthened because a negative reinforcer is removed or eliminated: * I.e. a client takes an antidepressant and the depression goes away. She is more apt to take the medicine again. (I.e. she will take the medicine again because the depression, the negative reinforcer, goes away) * A client has a headache and takes pain meds. The pain (the negative reinforcer) subsides. He is more likely to take the meds again. * A child cleans her room as her mom's nagging goes away. Mom's nagging is the negative reinforcer.

Answer 96

When a new stimulus is paired with the CS and the new stimulus takes on the power of the CS, behaviorists refer to the phenomenon as higher order condition. So if, after a dog was conditioned to salivate with the bell, someone then paired the bell with a light and the dog started salivating at the light, this is a higher order conditioning. In this case, the light, which is an NS or a neutral stimulus, takes on the power of the bell.

Answer 97

This is when a token, something that represents a reinforcer, is given after a desirable behavior. The token, which often looks just like a plastic coin, can be exchanged for the primary reinforcer (I.e. people in a treatment facility getting enough tokens to go to a baseball game). She exams refer to the items or activities that can be purchased with the tokens (I.e. baseball game) as back up reinforcers.

Answer 98

This is a form of biofeedback training, discovered at the Menninger Clinic, in which a high percentage of people could ward off migraines simply by raising the temperature in their hand. This technique is known as biofeedback temperature training or thermal training. In essence, a biofeedback temperature trainer is just an extremely precise, high priced thermometer.

Answer 99

This is a relaxation technique in which muscle groups are alternately tensed and relaxed until the whole body is in a stage of relaxation. This method, called **The Jacobson method,** because the darling of the behavior therapy movement. EMG means electromyogram and is used to measure muscle tension. A person who is tensing a given muscle group could have an EMG biofeedback device hooked directly to the problem area. New research shows that EMG might be actually superior to the old method – temperature training-- to control migraines.

Answer 100

This says that an efficient reinforcer is what the client him or herself likes to do. Thurs in this procedure, a lower-probability behavior (**LPB)** is reinforced by a higher-probability behavior (**HPB)**. The principle says that any higher-probability behavior can be used as a reinforcer for any lower probability behavior. This is sometimes called “Grandma's rule” or “Grandma's law” that says something like, “If you eat your veggies, you can have dessert”.

Answer 101

An EEG is a medical measurement used in biofeedback work that provides feedback related to brain wave rhythms. So a counselor who wanted to teach a client to produce alpha waves for relaxation would utilize EEG feedback. EEG training often focuses on the production of alpha waves. An individual in an alpha state is awake but extremely relaxed.

Answer 102

In continuous reinforcement, you continue to provide reinforcement each time the target behavior offices. Continuous reinforcement is not necessarily the most practical or the most effective. Most human behaviors are reinforced effectively given the principle of **intermittent reinforcement**. In this method, the target behavior is reinforced only after it happens a certain amount of time or after a given interval. This can also be called **partial reinforcement** or **thinning** which indicates the behavior is only reinforced a portion of the time.

Answer 103

1. The ratio, based on the number of responses 2. The interval, based on the time elapsed Note that the words 'fixed" and “variable” are often used with the words “ratio” and “interval”. Fixed implies the reinforcement always takes place after ra fixed time or number of responses whereas “variable” implies that an average number of responses or times may be used.

Answer 104

Variable ratio (I.e. given over variable ratios of the event occurrences). The easiest intermittent schedule to extinguish is fixed interval. In general **variable schedules are more effective than fixed schedules and ratio schedules are more effective than interval schedules.** **Most to least effective:** Variable ratio, variable interval, fixed ratio, fixed interval

Answer 105

It Is a popular treatment for phobias and situations that provoke high anxiety. The technique is done by using SUDS (subjective units of distress) to help create an anxiety hierarchy. The procedure,, however, is not particularly effective for clients experiencing free floating anxiety vs. tied to one particular thing.

Answer 106

This is when a stimulus which accompanies a primary reinforcer takes on reinforcement properties of its own. The most popular secondary reinforcer in the world is likely money. Money in and of itself isn't reinforcing but money gets its power from the reinforcers you can acquire from having money. A classical example is a mother who feeds her baby while talking - so the talking may be come soothing. Tokens are also secondary reinforcers. Some may call reinforcing stimuli like money or tokens **generalized reinforcers. .**

Answer 107

A back-up reinforcer is an item or activity that can be purchased using tokens.

Answer 108

Aversive conditioning is things like when someone gives an alcoholic Antabuse so that they get sick every time they drink alcohol. The idea is to pair the alcohol with an averse, somewhat unpleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction of drinking it. Ethical dilemmas are common when using this technique.

Answer 109

Aversive conditioning is things like when someone gives an alcoholic Antabuse so that they get sick every time they drink alcohol. The idea is to pair the alcohol with an averse, somewhat unpleasant stimulus to reduce the satisfaction of drinking it. Ethical dilemmas are common when using this technique.

Answer 110

It was initially assumed that systematic desensitization was based on Pavlov's respondent conditioning and was effective due to counter conditioning. But additional research used 'dismantling theory" where a technique is deconstructed. In this instance, it was discovered that the systematic desensitization worked withough the relaxation. the strategy was working because of extinction and not counterconditioning.

Answer 111

Behavior rehearsal is the act of practicing a behavior in a counseling session that can be beneficial in the client's life (such as asking for a raise). The counselor might a los switch roles and model assertive behavior for the client.

Answer 112

This refers to the treatment model created by psychologist George A Kelly. In this approach, the client is given a sketch of a person or a fixed role. He or she is instructed to read the script at least 3 times a day and think, act, and verbalize like the person in the script. Kelly's approach is quite systematic and has been called the psychology of personal constructs after his work of the same name.

Answer 113

* Relaxation training * construction of anxiety hierarchy * desensitization in imagination (also referred to as **interposition)** * in vivo desensitization (the client will actually expose himself to the scary situations - therapists believe this shouldn't happen until the client has been desensitized to 75% of the hierarchy items) It's best if the hierarchy items are evenly spaced using the SUDS. If items are too far apart, it may feel impossible to move up the hierarchy. Or if they're too close together, the helping process will be slow and behaviorists place a premium on rapid, efficacious treatment.

Answer 114

Behavioral sex therapy. It was developed by Masters and Johnson of St. Louis, MS. Like Wolpe's systematic desensitization, this approach relies on counterconditing. A couple is told to engage in touching and caressing to lower anxiety levels on a graduated basis until intercourse is possible.

Answer 115

“covert" here refers to “in the imagination” and “sensitization” means someone becomes more sensitive to a stimulus. So a counselor who tells an alcoholic to imagine that a drink nauseates him would be relying on covert sensitization. The client is then instructed to imagine a relief scene, like an enjoyable feeling with the alcohol is removed and replaced with water.

Answer 116

Implosive therapy is always conducted in the imagination and someones relies on psychoanalytic symbolism. (Implosive starts with “I”, just like “imagination”). Flooding, which is similar, using occurs when someone is genuinely exposed to the feared stimulus. Flooding is also called “deliberate exposure with response position”. So, for example, if someone who's afraid of snakes because he's afraid they will bite him is exposed to a snake for nearly an hour without the dreaded state. Research has shown that in vivo procedures like flooding are extremely helpful for things like agoraphobia and OCD. Recent findings suggest that in some instances, flooding outperforms systematic desensitization as a treatment for phobias. And that a single long session works better than many short sessions. BUT they can also exacerbate anxiety.

Answer 117

The effects of punishment are usually temporary and it teaches aggression. BF Skinner felt that after the punishment was administered, the behavior would manifest itself once again. Positive measures are seen as more effective than punishment. If punishment is used, remember that it doesn't cause the person to unlearn the behavior and it should be used along with positive reinforcing measures.

Answer 118

A “yes" or “no” questions. Counselors prefer open-ended questions which produce more information.

Answer 119

Sympathy often implies pity while accurate empathy is the ability to experience another person's subjective experience.

Answer 120

EMDR stands for eye movement desensitization and reprocessing, a technique created by Francine Shapiro to deal with traumatic memories. EMDR helps clients deal with anxiety, traumatic memories, and PTSD.

Answer 121

Parroting is when you repeat back a client's exact words. This is not recommended.

Answer 122

This refers to behaviors on the part of the counselor which indicate that he or she is truly engaged in active listening skills - like eye contact, responses, etc.

Answer 123

Rovery R. Carkhuff suggests a “scale for measurement” in regard to “empathic understanding in interpersonal processes”. The levels are: * Level 1 - not attending or detracting significantly from the client's verbal and behavioral expressions * Level 2 - subtracts noticeable affect from the communication * Level 3 - feelings expressed by the client are basically interchangeable with the client's meaning and affect * Level 4 - counselor adds noticeably to the client's affect * Level 5 - counselor adds significantly to the client's surface and underlying feelings, even in the client's deepest moments.

Answer 124

Logotherapy is a form of therapy created by Viktor Frankl that means healing through meaning. Frankly has also been thought of as the father of **paradoxical intention.** Paradoxical intention is implemented by advising the client to purposely exaggerate a dysfunctional behavior in the imagination. Ironically, though this comes out of logo therapy, this is now considered a behaviorist technique. Recently, counselors have gone beyond the paradoxical imagination and prescribe the client engages in the dysfunctional behavior (I.e. OCD client advised to wash hands 51 times instead of the usual 45)

Answer 125

Existentialism is considered a humanistic form of helping in which the counselor helps the client discover meaning in his or her life by doing a deed, experiencing a value, or suffering. Existential counseling rejects analysis and behaviorism for being deterministic and simplistic. The existential viewpoint developed as a counterpoint to the analytic and behavioral schools and stresses growth and self-actualization.

Answer 126

Ellis is considered the founding father of the cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) movement. Ellis created **rational-emotive behavior therapy** (**REBT).** The major premise of REBT can be captured by this quote by the stoic philosopher Epictetus who said, “Men are disturbed not by things but of the view which they take of them”. * Note: REBT was formerly known as rational-emotive therapy (RET)

Answer 127

That it is too vague regarding techniques and procedures. Existential counseling is more of a philosophy of helping than specific intervention strategies. Critics say it is not a systematic approach to treatment and is abstract and not scientific.

Answer 128

The here and now. Existentialists focus on what the person can ultimately become. The present and even the future are emphasized. The key to change is self-determination.

Answer 129

This is a horizontal relationship that assumes equality between persons. In a vertical relationship, the counselor is viewed as an expert.

Answer 130

Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, Irvin Yalom. Rollo May introduced existential therapy in the US. Irvin Yalom is noted for his work in group therapy.

Answer 131

The father of gestalt therapy

Answer 132

Beck was a cognitive psychologist whose cognitive therapy or cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) resembles REBT (ellis) and focuses on automatic thoughts leading to depression. Beck is praised for his **cognitive triad of depression** which asserts that the depressed individual: 1. feels worthless and has a negative view of himself 2. has a negative view of the world as unfair 3. feels the future is hopeless

Answer 133

TG Stampfl. This therapy is like exposure therapy but is always conducted using the imagination and sometimes uses psychoanalytic symbolism.

Answer 134

* **umwelt -** the physical world * **mitwelt -** the relationship world (mi = my = relationship) * **eigenwelt -** the identity world (Ei = I = identity)

Answer 135

He learned that you can't control the environment but you can control your response. Despite his horrifying experiences in Auschwitz and Dachau, Frankly felt that suffering could be transformed into achievement and creativity.

Answer 136

free will, decision, and will. Logotherapists often use the term *noogenic neurosis* which is the frustration of the will to meaning. The counselor assists the client to find meaning in life so the client can write his or her own life story by making meaningful choices. When exploring the meaning of life, some anxiety is normal. And death is not seen as an evil concept but rather an entity which gives meaning to the process of life.

Answer 137

The client's internal personal experience of events.

Answer 138

The philosophy of being and existing. This is the metaphysical study of life.

Answer 139

Reality therapy.

Answer 140

This is a technique used by rational-emotive behavior therapists in which the client is to imagine that he or she is in a situation which has traditionally caused emotional disturbance. The client then imagines changing the feelings via rational, logical, scientific thought.

Answer 141

This is Rational Behavior Therapy (sometimes called rational self counseling) created by psychiatrist Maxie C. Maultsby who studied with Albert Ellis. This approach relies on REBT, but the client performs a written self-analysis. Maultsby claimed this technique is well suited to problems of substance abuse and is highly recommended for multicultural counseling.

Answer 142

Created by William Glasser, this is a form of CBT that focuses on improving present relationships and circumstances while avoiding discussion of past events. This approach is based on the idea that our most important need is to be loved, to feel that we belong, and that all other basic needs can be satisfied only by building strong connections with others. Reality therapy teaches that while we cannot control how we feel, we can control how we think and behave. The goal of reality therapy is to help people take control of improving their lives by learning to make better choices. This is a very concrete, short term approach. Reality therapy has **8 steps:** 1. Build a relationship with the client 2. focus on the present-moment behavior 3. develop a contract with an action plan 4. have the client commit to the plan 5. accept no excuses 6. do not use punishment 7. refuse to give up on the patient

Answer 143

No. According to choice theory, the person's childhood may have contributed to the problem but the past is never really the problem. The client's childhood is usually not explored and if the client brings it up, the reality therapist will often try to emphasize childhood successes, feeling that an analysis of the difficulties could actually reinforce maladaptive patterns. Reality therapy focuses on the here and now. In this therapy, excuses are not accepted and the unconscious is avoided. ## Footnote **According to a strict behaviorist, the environment controls behavior but according to Glasser, the individual controls the environment.**

Answer 144

Choice theory asserts that the only person whose behavior we can control is our own. Choice theory postulates that behavior is really an attempt to control our perceptions to satisfy our genetic needs - survival, love, belonging, power, freedom, and fun. Questions may use the abbreviation BCP which means perception controls our behavior. **Reality therapy uses choice theory which is different than strict behaviorists who would say the environment controls our behavior. Reality therapists would say the individual controls the environment.**

Answer 145

Creating contracts with clients in a written manner is a technique favored by behavior therapists. In reality therapy, a plan is created to help the client master his or her target behavior.

Answer 146

The past is only discussed in terms of successful behaviors. Glasser believes that dwelling on lsat failures can reinforce a negative self-concept.

Answer 147

He believes that diagnostic labels give clients permission to act sick or irresponsible. Reality therapy has little use for the formal diagnostic process or what is known in clinical circles as *nosology.* Glasser rejected this traditional medical model of disease.

Answer 148

Like a friend who asks what's wrong. Unlike the detached psychoanalyst, the reality therapist literally makes friends with the client. This is the first of 8 steps utilized in this model. Step 7 is refusing to use punishment.

Answer 149

*Schools without Failure.* Glasser wrote other books including *Choice Theory* and *Positive Addiction* but *Schools without Failure* is what popularized his work in educational circles.

Answer 150

That the client and counselor should be persistent and never give up. The first step is that the counselor and client should make friends with each other. The 7th step says to refuse punishment.

Answer 151

This is something like jogging. Glasser stressed that people can be addicted to positive behaviors and this helps to instill self-confidence. A positive addiction must be a noncompetitive activity which can be performed alone for about one hour each day. Moreover the person can see that performing the activity will lead to personal improvement. Lastly, the person needs to be capable of performing the activity without becoming self-critical.

Answer 152

Glasser felt that the responsible person will have a success identity. He felt that the individual who possesses a success identity feels worthy and significant to others. Identity is a person's most important psychological need. A person who is irresponsible, and thus frustrated in an attempt to feel loved and worthwhile, will develop a failure identity and a faulty perception of reality. The client is encouraged to assume responsibility for his or her own happiness – I.e. by learning to fulfill personal needs without depriving others of their need fulfillment.

Answer 153

REBT, started by analytically trained NY clinical psychologist Albert Ellis, assumes the client's emotional disturbance is the result of irrational thoughts. In REBT, the cure is a high dose of rational thinking. In this therapy, the client is taught to change cognitions. The philosopher Epictetus is most closely associated with REBT because he said, “people are disturbed not by things but by the views they take of them”. **Irrational beliefs (IBs)** are replaced with **rational beliefs (RBs)** * Uses the **ABC** or **ABCDE model of personality** (**A** = activating event, **B =** client's belief system, **C** = emotional consequence, **D =** counselor disputes the irrational belief at B, **E =** new emotional consequence that occurs when B becomes rational) * Thought is referred to as **self-talk** and **internal verbalizations**. * Active, directive form of therapy with lots of homework, **bibliotherapy**, and **rational imagery (RI**

Answer 154

* **A -** activating event * **B -** belief system * **C -** emotional consequence Ellis believed issues were caused by an irrational and unhealthy belief system (I.e. it is necessary to be loved and approved of by every single person in your life, you must be thoroughly competent in all areas to be worthwhile, etc).

Answer 155

* **D -** disputing the irrational behavior at B (belief system) * **E -** a new emotional consequence or a new “effect' or an ”effective new philosophy on life" The theory is basically that you create your own present emotional and behavioral difficulties. Ellis believes that no matter how bad life seems, you always have the power to ameliorate intense feelings of despair, anxiety, and hostility.

Answer 156

The use of books or writings pertaining to self-improvement.

Answer 157

This is a term coined by Albert Ellis (REBT). Musturbation occurs when a client uses too many should, oughts, or musts in their thinking. some may refer to this as **absolutist thinking.**

Answer 158

This is a word commonly used in REBT. Awfulizing or catastrophizing is the act of telling yourself how difficult, terrible, and horrendous a given situation really is.

Answer 159

This refers to Donald Meichenbaum's approach which is similar to REBT. Restructuring takes place when the client begins thinking in a healthy new way using different internal dialogue.

Answer 160

REBT and other therapies that basically “teach” the client are known as 'didactic" models of treatment and often uses homework like bibliotherapy.

Answer 161

Irrational thinking at point B (belief system). Ellis believed you could be happy even if you survived numerous childhood traumas and also, like Glasser and other behaviorists, put little stock in the notion of transference.

Answer 162

Refuting irrational thoughts and replacing them with rational ones. This is the process of changing your thoughts and your feelings via self-talk or what Ellis often called internal verbalizations. REBT clients often receive emotional control cards from their therapist that delineate irrational ideas and what one can think rationally to combat these unhealthy thoughts. The act of changing the client's mode of thinking is sometimes called **cognitive disputation**. REBT therapists also use **imaginal disputation** (I.e imagery to help with the process) and urge clients to behave in different patterns (**behavioral disputation)**.

Answer 163

Ellis believed that only humans think in declarations (internal sentences that can cause or ward off emotional despair). He firmly believed his theory promotes scientific thinking and that lower animals may be incapable of such thought. He believed in the ABC theory of personality (activating event, belief system, emotional consequence). According to Ellis, most therapies can be faulted for not emphasizing irrational beliefs at point B.

Answer 164

Pictures in your mind. Glasser insisted that behavior is internally motivated and that we choose our actions.

Answer 165

RBT emphasizes a written self-analysis. In group work, the counselor has a didactic or teaching role in which participants are taught to apple the techniques to their own lives. The leader encourages equal group participation for all members and gives reading assignments (bibliotherapy) between the sessions. All in al, the leader is highly directive and uses RBT as a model for self-help. Like REBT, RBT usitlizes rational-emotive imagery on a regular basis.

Answer 166

This is an old abbreviation of stimulus-response behavioral psychology. REBT and RBT are both not fond of this model because it asserts that a stimulus (or what Ellis would call an activating event at point A) causes a response (or what Ellis calls the consequence at point C). The S-R stimulus-response model, according to Ellis, is guilty of leaving out B, the client's believe system? Thus, although Ellis might conceded that the S-R paradigm could explain rat behavior, it is inadequate when applied to humans. The SR model has also been called the “applied behavior analysis” or "radical behaviorism by BF skinner. Radical behaviorism makes the assumption that the environment maintains and supports behavior and that only every behaviors are the subject of treatment – which would be Skinnerian operant conditioning of course.

Answer 167

Beck believed that dysfunctional ideas can be too absolute and broad but, unlike REBT, he did not believe they are necessarily irrational. Beck believed that depression is the result of a cognitive triad of negative believes regarding oneself, one's future, and one's experience. Beck's model has been shown to be effective for phobia and anxiety. Beck disliked the term “irrational ideas” and instead emphasized “rules” or “formulas of living” which cause unhappiness and he suggested new rules the client can test. His daughter Judy Beck is now helping popularize the approach. Beck also liked to ask the clients to engage in Socratic questioning - “am I focusing too much on the negative aspects of the relationship?” “Could I be misrepresenting the situation?” These questions help clients challenge unrealistic thought patterns. **Note that Beck's approach could show up as CT (cognitive therapy) or CBT (cognitive behavioral therapy).**

Answer 168

Aaron Beck, who developed CBT, created the BDI as a self-repot depression questionnaire.

Answer 169

Donald Meichenbaum. Meichenbam's approach is called **self-instructional training**. Implementation of his “stress inoculation technique” has 3 basic phases: * **Educational phase:** The is taught to monitor the impact of inner dialog on behavior * **Rehearsal phase**: Clients are taught to rehearse new self-talk. * **Application phase:** the new inner dialog is attempted during actual stress-producing situations. Counselor-educators often classify approaches which dwell on cognition which emphasizing behavioral strategies for change (REBT, RBT, self-instructional therapy) as cognitive behavioral approaches to helping.

Answer 170

This is a model created by Eric Berne and popularized via his books *Games People Play* and *What do you say after you say hello.* TA is examines a person's relationships and interactions. Berne took inspiration from Freud's theories of personality and combined them with his own observations of human transactional analysis. It can be used to address one's interactions and communications with the purpose of establishing and reinforcing the idea that each person is valuable and has the capacity for positive change and growth. TA therapists are likely to incorporate gestalt therapy into the treatment process, even though TA is a behavioral approach and gestalt is experiential. But gestalt therapy emphasizes affective exploration that is otherwise missing from the very intellectual TA. **script analysis, PAC structure, parallel vs. crossed communication patterns, ulterior transactions**

Answer 171

The Parent, the Adult, and the Child (PAC)

Answer 172

The parent ego state is composed of values internalized from significant others in childhood. The Parent ego state is like Freud's superego and is the synthesis of messages received from parental figures and significant others. When a therapist analyses which ego state a client is primarily operating out of, it is called **structural analysis.** TA therapists speak of two functions in the parent ego state: * **The nurturing parent:** I.e. "get some rest, honey, you've been studying and deserve some rest. The nurturing parent is sympathetic, Carin, and protective * **The critical parent:** I.e. “get off your butt and go study”. The critical parent is the master of the “should” and “musts” Sometimes you will also see the parent broken down into another part, the **prejudicial parent** who is opinionated with biases not based on fact (I.e. “women should always wear dresses to work”). The death or absence of a parent can result in an **incomplete parent state.**

Answer 173

The adult ego state is Freud's ego state – it processes facts and does not focus on feelings. It is also known as neopsyche. It is rational and logical.

Answer 174

The child state, sometimes called the **archaeopsyche**, resembles Freud's id. There are a few ways the child may manifest itself: * **The natural child** - what the person would be naturally: spontaneous, impulsive, untrained * **The little professor -** the little professor acts on hunches, often without the necessary information. * **The adapted child** - the adapted child learns how to comply to avoid a parental slap on the wrist .

Answer 175

Messages we receive from parents to form the various ego states are called **injunctions** and cause us to make certain life decisions. I.e. if an early message was, “I wish you had never been born” the decision might be "if my life gets very stressful I'll kill myself.

Answer 176

This is what it's called when one describes the client using the PAC (parent-adult-child) conceptualization from TA (transactional analysis)

Answer 177

TA says that healthy communication transactions occur where vectors of communication run parallel. This is a **complementary transaction** in which you get an appropriate, predicted response. If there is a “**crossed transaction**”, that means the vectors from a message sent and a message received do not run parallel (I.e. I send a message from my adult to your adult but you respond from your adult to my child). Crossed transactions result in deadlock of communication or hurt feelings. Tip: it is generally not a good thing when people work at crossed purposes. In TA, a crossed transaction is not conducive to healthy communication.

Answer 178

Yes. TA therapists often use diagrams or pictorial representations in the treatment process.

Answer 179

Tom Harris suggested 4 basic life positions: * **I'm not okay, you're okay** - someone who is self-abusive, suicidal, self-harm, etc * **I'm okay, you're okay** - what successful winners choose * **I'm okay, you're not okay -** the position taken by someone who blames others for their misery, I.e. adolescent delinquents, adult criminals. Such persons feel victimized and are often paranoid. In extreme cases, this person may see homicide as an acceptable solution to life's problems * **I'm not okay, you're not okay -** the most pessimistic position. This position could result in schizoid behavior and, in the worst-case scenario, the tendency to kill someone then take one's own life.

Answer 180

Karpman suggested that only 3 roles are necessary for manipulative drama: persecutor, rescuer, and victim. A drama is similar to a TA “game”, yet it has a greater number of events and the person switches roles during the interaction.

Answer 181

In TA, a game is a transaction with a concealed motive. Games prevent honest intimate discussion and one player is always left with negative feelings. Games have a predictable outcome as a result of ulterior transactions. An ulterior transaction occurs when a disguised message is sent. Games in TA have degrees: **the higher the number, the greater the hurt.** For example, a second-degree game is more hurtful than a first-degree game. In a first-degree game, the hurt is innocuous, in the second it is more serious and in the third-degree game, the hurt can be permanent or deadly. The act of looking at the consequences of a game is known as **game analysis.**

Answer 182

In this technique, the person imagines that another individual is in the chair in front of him or her and then the client talks to that person. This technique is popular in both TA and the gestalt model.

Answer 183

Contracting

Answer 184

Rackets. When a client manipulates others to experience a childhood feeling, the result is called a racket. In TA, the experience of trying to secure these feelings is known as **collecting trading stamps.**

Answer 185

This is a person's ongoing drama which dictates how that person will live their life. Claude Steiner has written extensively on scripts and suggests 3 basic unhealthy scripts: no love, no mind, and no joy. It is like a theatrical plot based on early parental messages (**injunctions** in TA). According to Berne, a life script is actually a life drama or plot based on unconscious decisions made early in life. A script couple apply to a family or even a country.

Answer 186

Analysis of variance, abbreviated to ANOVA, is a statistical technique used to determine differences between two or more means.

Answer 187

This could be considered the script of domestic violence. There are 3 phases to the cycle of violence: * tension building phase where arguments erupt easily (walking on eggshells) * Battering or acute incident phase where the actual violence occurs * Makeup phase, often referred to as the honeymoon phase, characterized by romance, ‘I’ll never do it again", etc As time goes by, the couple goes through the phases more rapidly and the honeymoon phase may not even exist.

Answer 188

* **Never scripts** - a person who feels he will never succeed * **always scripts -** people who will always remain a given way * **after scripts -** result in a way a person believes he or she will behave after a certain event occurs * **open-ended script -** the person has no direction or plan * **until scripts -** the client is not allowed to feel good until certain accomplishment or event arrives * **desirable scripts/less desirable scripts** The processes of ferreting out a client's script is called **script analysis**

Answer 189

Ulterior transactions contain hidden transactions as two or more ego states are operating at the same time. So if someone says, “would you like a ride in my car?" and the potential romantic partner agrees this seems like a healthy (parallel) transaction from his adult to her adult. He may, however, have a secret, covert, ulterior motive if he is a game player – so the ulterior motive which goes from his child to hers could be “wanna make out?”. Her ulterior answer, her child to his child, is “sure”. Critics say that script analysis relies too heavily on psychoanalytic concepts.

Answer 190

Gestalt therapy.

Answer 191

Fritz Perls (Gestalt) say the **top dog** as the critical parent portion of the personality which is very authoritarian and quick to use “should” and “oughts”. The **underdog** was seen as weak, powerless, passive, and full of excuses. These splits in the personality would wage civil war within the individual. When using the **empty chair technique**, frequently used in gestalt therapy, the person could be the top dog in one chair and the underdog in the other.

Answer 192

According to James O Prochaska, the steps needed for change include: * **precontemplation -** the person is not ready to change or acknowledge the issue * **contemplation** - the person is ambivalent or getting ready to change * **preparation -** the person comes up with ideas about how to change * **action -** The person takes steps to improve * **maintenance -** the person relies on behaviors to prevent relapse and perpetuate new behaviors

Answer 193

It stands for Bandler and Grinder's neurolinguistic programing. This model, supposedly based someone what what Erickson, Perls, and others *actually* did in their sessions makes some incredible claims such as the ability to cure a longstanding phobia in less time than it takes to conduct a typical counseling session. Two of the most popular NLP techniques are **reframing** and **anchoring.** when using reframing the counselor helps the client perceive a given situation is a new light to produce a new emotional reaction (glass isn't half empty, it's half full). In anchoring, a desirable emotional state is evoked via an outside stimulus (touch, sound, motion). This is similar to classical conditioning or the concept of a posthypnotic suggestion (I.e. someone w/a cat phobia may squeeze his arm when he comes in contact w/a cat and this brings out an emotion other than fear). Tony Robins expanded on NLP…but has only a hs education.

Answer 194

Projection is an ego defense mechanism in which you see something in others that you cannot accept about yourself. Gestalt hits this head on and in the “playing the projection technique”, the counselor literally asks you to act like this person you dislike.

Answer 195

A client might say, “doesn't everyone in the group feel scared?" and then the client is asked to turn the question into an “I” statement, in this case, “I feel scared”. In Gestalt, this is known as taking responsibility for a feeling or situation. Often times, the counselor will literally ask the client to say this - I.e. “I feel scared and I am taking responsibility for being scared."

Answer 196

Gestalt therapists are very concerned with the here-and-now. when a client tries to avoid a feeling, the counselor urges the client to face it or stay with the feeling. Perls believed this was necessary for growth.

Answer 197

Dream work is an integral part of the gestalt approach to counseling. The client is told to recount the dream as if it is happening in the present. Everything in the dream is considered a projection of the self. So if th client is being chased by a mean monster in the dream, the client might be asked to become the monster. The gestalt model emphasizes experience rather than interpretation which makes it especially attractive for group intervention.

Answer 198

The exaggeration experiment most closely resembles paradox as practiced by Frankl, Haley, or Erickson. Perls emphasized the exaggeration in regards to present moment verbal and nonverbal behavior in the here and now. A gestalt therapist might say, “what is your left hand doing?” (in gestalt, “what” questions are more valuable than “why” questions). After the client responds, the therapist might add “can you exaggerate that movement in your left hand?”

Answer 199

This is an operant behavior modification term that suggests that a behavior is gradually accomplished by reinforcing successive steps until the target behavior is reached. This is also known as **shaping** or **shaping using successive approximations.**

Answer 200

They would likely ask the client to change the verbalization to an “I” statement. A goal of gestalt is to eliminate “it” talk and replace it with I statements.

Answer 201

This is the Dictionary of Occupational Titles and was a popular comprehensive career counseling reference created by the US Department of Labor in 1938. The final official edition was published in March 1999 as a two volume set as a companion to **ONET** (occupational information network). The ONET is an online database which replaced the DOT.

Answer 202

This stands for the Occupational Outlook Handbook. This was first published in 1949 by the US department of labor and is now revised every 2 years. The goal is to detect projected job trends and delineate earnings, necessary training and education for a job, and working conditions and what workers in a given job actually do.

Answer 203

*The Strong* (formerly the Strong Campbell Interest Inventory or SCII) is the most popular interest inventory, based on the theory of John Holland.

Answer 204

Gestalt therapy focuses on the here-and-now and incorporates psychodrama. **Psychodrama** incorporates role playing in to the treatment process. I.e. a client might act out an especially painful incident in his or her life. Psychodrama was created by Jacob L. Moreno who first coined the term group therapy. In general, gestalt therapists emphasize experiments and exercises.

Answer 205

Retroflection is a gestalt term that is the act of doing to yourself what you really wish you could do to someone else. Psychoanalysts often say that the person who wishes to kill himself really wants to kill everyone else.

Answer 206

Five layers of neurosis. Perls likened the process of therapy ro that of peeling an onion. The person has a phony level, a phobic layer (fear that others will reject his or her uniqueness), an impasse layer (the person feels stuck), the implosive later (willingness to expose the true self), an the explosive layer (the person finds relief due to authenticity).

Answer 207

**Unfinished business.** When an unexpressed feeling of resentment, rage, guilt, anxiety, or other emotion interferes with present situations and causes difficulties, it is known as “unfinished business”.

Answer 208

Fritz Perls borrowed the term “gestalt” from the system of psychology proposed by Max Wetheimer in Germany in the 20s which emphasized that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. The original gestalt psychologists studied perceptual phenomena (I.e. figure/ground relationships). Gestalt therapy emphasizes awareness in the here and now and dream work. The gestalt mode does not believe that a client can “think” oneself out of unhappiness but rather must experience awareness for growth. Some have deemed gestalt affective paradigms (existential too) because they urge clients to purge emotions in order to feel better about themselves. Gestalt has traditionally been a popular modality for group work. The 3 most common principles relating to gestalt psychology are: * Insight learning * Zeigarnik effect - motivated people tend to experience tension due to unfinished tasks and so they recall unfinished activities better. Thus, if you sincerely care about the outcome of the task, you will have better recall of it if it remains completed. This relates to **unfinished business** in gestalt therapy * Phiphenomenon - the illusion of movement can be achieved via two or more stimulus which are not moving (I.e. a neon sign w/a moving arrow).

Answer 209

Top dog, underdog, and the empty chair technique. This could also be referred to as **games of dialogue**. In addition to the top dog/underdog split, the empty chair technique could also be used for other opposing tendencies, including feminine vs. masculine.

Answer 210

Gestalt assumes that anxiety is actually **stage fright**. By this, the gestalt therapist assumes the client has internally rehearsed a situation and is worried that his or her “performance” will not be up to snuff. This “**rehearsal**” is said to get in the way of spontaneity and healthy personal experimentation. The rehearsal technique especially lends itself to group work as group members can share their rehearsals with one another and thus awareness of stage fright (I.e. worrying about not saying or doing the right thing) and fear of not being accepted by others can be illuminated.

Answer 211

That it often fails to emphasize cognitive concerns. Gestalt is considered a little anti-intellectual. In gestalt therapy, the emphasis is on increasing psychological and body awareness. Another criticism is that it's too confrontational if practiced in Perls's manner. Today, gestalt therapists are gender, softer, and less abrupt than Perls. Confrontation occurs when the therapist points out discrepancies or incongruence between the client's verbal and nonverbal behaviors.

Answer 212

This is a popular group exercise in which the client is instructed to say the same message to everyone in the group.

Answer 213

The 1960s. The 1950s marked the golden age for developmental psychology. By the late 60s, the field was inundated with competing psychotherapies. In the 1970s, biofeedback, behavior modification, and crisis hotlines flourished and in the 1980s professionalism (licensing, improvement in professional organizations) flourished.

Answer 214

It would progress faster with a Rogerian therapist. Because gestalt therapists are generally rather confrontational, theorists assume that the client-counselor relationship will progress at a slower rate.

Answer 215

* **Nondirective** - the initial name, intended to set the approach apart from directive and analytic models * **Client-centered -** new name that emphasized Rogers's theory of personality and the fact that the client was not viewed as a “sick patient” * **person centered -** its current name emphasizes the power of the person and Rogers's growing interest in group behavior. Rogers's method could also be known as **self theory**. When his approach is used in career counseling, the role of the self-concept in career choice is illuminated.

Answer 216

Reflection is used a lot, yet the counselor rarely gives advice. A strict Rogerian wouldn't give techniques for behavioral change or instruct the person on how to think.

Answer 217

empathy, congruence, genuine, and the ability to demonstrate unconditional positive regard to create a desirable “I-thou” relationship. Rogerians speak of **conditions for growth** and a therapeutic atmosphere which produces a **climate for growth.** The counselor helps produce genuineness (or congruence, which indicates the counselor can be real in the relationship), unconditional positive regard, and empathic understanding. Rogers has an optimistic view concerning human nature, believing that we have an inborn tendency towards self-actualization. Overall, the research does not support the notion that these therapeutic factors are necessarily related to positive therapeutic outcomes but rather the client's traits have an even greater impact on the success of psychotherapy.

Answer 218

As positive when he develops in a warm, accepting, trusting environment.

Answer 219

* **Rogers (person-centered)** - individual is good and moves towards growth and self-actualization * **Berne (TA) -** messages learned about self in childhood determine whether person is good or bad, though intervention can changes this script * **Freud (psychoanalysis) -** deterministic. people are controlled by biological instincts, are unsocialized and irrational and driven by unconscious forces of sex and aggressoin * **Ellis (REBT)** - People have a cultural/biological propensity to think in a disturbed manner but can be taught to use their capacity to react differently * **Perls (gestalt) -** People are not bad or good. People have the capacity to govern life effectively as “whole”. People are part of their environment and must be viewed as such. * **Glasser (reality therapy) -** Individuals strive to meet basic physiological needs and the need to be worthwhile to self and others. Brain as control system tries to meet needs. * **Adler (individual psychology) -** Man is basically good. Much of behavior is determined via birth order * **Jung (analytic psychology) -** man strives for individuation or a sense of self-fulfillment * **Skinner (behavior modification) -** Humans are like other animals: mechanistic and controlled via environmental stimuli and reinforcement contingencies - not good or bad, not self-determination or freedom * **Bandura (neobehavioristic) -** person produces and is a product of conditioning. Observation and modeling are extremely important * **Frankl (logo therapy) -** existential view is that humans are good, rational, and retain freedom of choice * **Williamson (trait-factor) -** through education and scientific data, man can become himself. Humans are born with potential for good or evil. Others are needed to help unleash positive potential. Man is mainly rational, not intuitive.

Answer 220

the person-centered model puts little stock in the formal process of diagnosis and psychological assessment. People are people and when they are labeled, they are debased to “patients”. Also, strict adherents to this model do not ask a number of questions, but when they do, open-ended questions are preferable.

Answer 221

Congruence in the counselor is when the counselor has the ability to be real in the relationship - when their external behavior matches an internal response or state. Congruence is a condition in which the counselor is very aware of her own feelings and accurately expresses this to the client. Rogers insists that 3 factors (or conditions) are needed for an effective helping environment. The counselor's attitude must include **genuineness (congruence), unconditional positive regard,** and **empathic understanding.** Of these 3 elements, Rogers suggested that congruence is the most important.

Answer 222

Critics of Rogerian therapy feel that some degree of directives is needed after the initial phase of counseling and that more confrontation is necessary, though Rogers did encourage caring confrontations. Many counselors believe that some degree of directiveness is needed after the relationship is built so that the relationship does not go in circles. This is referred to as the **action phase** of counseling Others are also critical of the way studies of the Rogerian model lacked a control group, didn't take into account placebo effect, or relied on self-reports too much.

Answer 223

Counselors who work as consultants generally do not adhere to a single theory! No integrated theory of consultation exists at this time. Consultation can target organizational concerns or service delivery. There are many major consultation models: * **Gerald Caplan's psychodynamic mental health consultation -** the consultants doesn't see the client directly but advises the consultee (I.e. the person receiving the services). This model recommends that the consultation, not the counselor/consultee, is ethically and legally responsible for the client's treatment * **behavioral consultation** or **social learning model -** associated with Bandura in which the consultants designs behavioral change programs for the consultee to implment * **process consultation model by Edgar Schien -** like the doctor/patient model in which the consultant is paid to diagnose the problem and prescribe a solution. The focus is on the agency or organization, not the individual client. In process consultation, the focus is not the content of the problem but rather the process used to solve problems.

Answer 224

Work/organizationa. Counselors typically focus on a person or a group while consultants focus more on issues. And in consultation work, empathy (though important) is overshadowed by genuineness and respect.

Answer 225

Attending behavior that is verbal. Attending behavior occurs when you give your clients your complete attention. Nonverbal attending behavior is things like leaning forward, eye contact, etc. Nonhelpful non-verbals would be things like frowning, yawning, etc,

Answer 226

When the counselor's thoughts are in relation to the client, this is said to be task-facilitative. When the counselor is thinking about his or her own concerns (where to go to lunch, how much $$ making, etc), this is seen as abstractive behavior.

Answer 227

Expertise, attractiveness, and trustworthiness. (hint: EAT) In 1968, Stanley Strong wrote a paper suggested that people perceived in an EAT manner could not be discreet by the client. Note that “Expertness” here refers to the way the client perceives the counselor rather than the way the counselor perceives him or herself. Attractiveness implies that positive feelings and thoughts about the counselor are helpful.

Answer 228

* **Competence**--a counselor's feeling about her own adequacy. A counselor who feels inadequate could directly or indirectly communicate this to the client * **Power**--In counseling, power is seen as a positive trait used to enhance a client's growth. Counselors struggling with their own feelings in regard to a lack of power may become rigid, coercive, or even belligenerate towards the client. Others may become overly non directive * **intimacy -** a counselor who has personal issues around intimacy also could be extremely non directive or afraid to confront clients for fear of rejection. Clearly such a counselor stays at arm's length from clients and could personally benefit from treatment. These are all factors that impact a counselor's social influence.

Answer 229

* Does not role play someone he is not as as to be accepted by the client * Does not change his true values from session to session. Clients are more open with counselors who seem genuine.

Answer 230

* **Basic:** The counselor's response is on the same level as the client's * **Subtractive:** The counselor's behavior does not completely convey an understanding of what has been communicated * **Additive:** This is the most desirable form of empathy because it adds to the client's understanding and awareness.

Answer 231

Robert Carhukk and Charles Truax. Carhuff created the empathy scale?

Answer 232

ABA is **applied behavior analysis** and is it how we now refer to behavior modification. The key concept is that behavior is learned and not pathological. **Watson** coined the word “behaviorism” while **Lazarus** Created the term “behavior therapy”.

Answer 233

Behavior modification (ABA) is rooted in Skinner's operant conditioning. Behavior therapy (systematic desensitization, flooding, implosive therapy, and assertiveness training) are rooted in Pavlov's classical conditioning.

Answer 234

This is a type of behavior therapy (rooted in classical conditioning) where the clienti imagines scary or feared stimuli in the safety of the counselor's office

Answer 235

**Rehm's Self-control therapy** is a behavioristic paradigm of therapy that relies on self-monitoring, evaluation, and self-reinforcement.

Answer 236

**Solution-focused brief therapy (SFBT)** was created by Shazer and Berg and focuses on solutions, rather than an understanding of the problem. The focus is on exceptions to the rules: what is working. * Uses questions like, “when aren't you depressed?” * Goals are small and realistic. Client is asked the **miracle question** * Also uses **formula first session task (FFST)** which is a homework assignment prescribed after the first session * Has gained popularity in group treatment This is cost-effective because managed care firms can restrict the number of sessions.