HUMAN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT DUR DUR UDRUAUDR Flashcards
Erikson (Early Childhood)
3 to 6 years
Initiative versus guilt
Involves skill testing
Erikson (Middle childhood)
7 to 12 years
Industry versus inferiority
Following adult reality and working toward desired
wants
Age 2
-Picks up small objects with thumb and forefinger, feeds self with spoon
-walks unassisted, usually at 12 months
-rolls a ball or flings it awkwardly
Age 4
-Cuts paper, approximates a circle
-walks down stairs, alternating feet
-catches and controls a large bounced ball across the body
Age 5
-Prints name
-Walks without holding onto the railing
-Tosses ball overhand with bent elbows
Age 6
-Copies two short words
-Hops on each foot for 1 meter but still holds the railing
-catches and controls a 10-inch ball in both hands with arms in front of the body.
Threats to preschool physical skills
Lack of outdoor play
Internet access
High-tech educational toys
Dangerous neighborhoods
Lack of food; undernutrition
Stunting
Impairment of fine and gross motor skills
Fatigue that limits engagement with world
Preoperational thinking
3 to 7 years
Captured by immediate appearances, believe that inanimate objects are alive and false appearances are true
Concrete operational
thinking
8 to 11 years
Reason conceptually about concrete objects, cannot think abstractly
Conservation tasks
Changing the shape of substances to see whether
children can go beyond the way that substance
visually appears to understand that the amount
remains the same
Number (conversation task)
Ex:
BEFORE- (pennies) Are these two rows the same?
AFTER- Context: (one row is longer than the other, but equal amount of pennies) Now is the amount of money the same?
Mass (conversation task)
Ex:
BEFORE- (balls of clay) Do these balls have the same amount of clay?
AFTER- Context: (One ball of clay is altered to look like a pancake, but still has the same amount as the one shaped like a ball) Now is the amount of clay the same?
Volume or liquid (conversation task)
Ex:
BEFORE- (two glasses of the same size with liquid) Do these glasses have the same amount of juice?
AFTER- Context (One glass is more narrower and taller than the normal one, but both hold an equal amount of liquid) Now do these glasses hold the same amount of juice?
Matter (conversation task)
Ex:
BEFORE- (two identical cubes of sugar) Do these cubes have the same amount of sugar?
AFTER- Context (One of the cube is dissolved in a cup of liquid) Now is there the same amount of sugar?
Gross motor skills
Physical abilities that involve large muscle movements, such as running and jumping.
Fine motor skills
Physical abilities that involve small, coordinated movements, such as drawing and writing one’s name.
animism
refers to the difficulty young children have in sorting out what is really alive. Specifically, preschoolers see inanimate objects—such
as dolls or costumed figures—as having consciousness, too.
egocentrism
young children believe that they are the literal center of the
universe, the pivot around which everything else revolves. Their worldview is characterized by egocentrism—the inability to understand that other people have different
points of view.
Centering
Young children interpret things according to what first hits their eye, rather than taking in the
entire visual array
Phonemes
Has trouble forming sounds
Ex: Baba, psghetti
Morphemes
Uses few meaning units per
sentence
Ex: Me go home
Syntax (Grammar)
Makes mistakes in applying
rules for forming sentences
Ex: Me come out
Semantics
Has problems understanding
word meanings
Ex: Calls the family dog a horsey
Overregularization
Puts irregular pasts and
plurals into regular forms
Ex: Foots; runned
over/under extension
Applies verbal labels too
broadly/ narrowly
Ex: Calls every older man
“grandpa”; tells another child
he can’t have a grandpa
because “grandpa” is the name
for his grandfather alone
Vygotsky’s zone of
proximal development
Child learning occurs best
when adult creates
instruction that matches
child’s capacities.
Scaffolding
-When the child becomes more competent, adults will usually back off slowly, allowing the child to make their own decisions based on their knowledge.
Adult uses scaffolding to
promote independent
performance.
Theory of mind
Understanding that
other people have
different beliefs and
perspectives from their
own
Typically achieved
around age 4 or 5 years
(universally)
Measured by false-
belief task
Prosocial behavior
Sharing, helping, and caring actions
Empathy
-the ability to understand and share the feelings of another, due to having similar experiences.
Sympathy
-is the more muted feeling that we experience for another human
being. You feel terrible for your co-worker, but don’t feel her intense distress.
Brain Development
Slow-growing frontal lobes spearhead growth
of middle-childhood achievements.
Synaptogenesis
- the formation of synapses, the points of contact where information is transmitted between neurons.
- the process of making numerous connections, programs every
skill—from Elissa’s vigorous push-ups to composing symphonies or solving problems
in math
Cerebral cortex
the outer, furrowed mantle of the brain, is the site of every
conscious perception, action, and thought.
Myelin Sheath
The axons form a fatty
layer around their core. Just as a stream of water prevents us from painfully bumping
down a water park slide, the myelin sheath is the lubricant that permits the neural
impulses to speedily flow. This insulating layer may also determine which cells thrive
Frontal Lobe pruning
-Extra neurons that are not needed are loss but are necessary for development.
-voluntary movement, expressive language and for managing higher level executive functions
self efficacy
-Promoting realistic self-esteem
-Emphasizing effort
- refers to our belief in our competence, our sense that we can be
successful at a given task
Harter’s 5 areas
Scholastic competence
Behavioral conduct
Athletic skills
Peer likeability
Physical appearance
Children with internalizing problems (low self esteem risk)
-Can read failure into everything and have overly
low self-esteem.
-Continue to fail because they decide that they cannot
succeed, and stop working.
Children with externalizing problems (High self esteem risk)
-May ignore real problems and have unrealistically
high self-esteem.
-Continue to fail because they don’t see the need to
improve.
initiative vs guilt
Initiative leads to a sense of purpose and can help develop leadership skills; failure results in guilt. Essentially, kids who don’t develop initiative at this stage may become fearful of trying new things. When they do direct efforts toward something, they may feel that they are doing something wrong.
industry vs inferiority
Erik Erikson’s term for the psychosocial task of middle
childhood involving managing our emotions and realizing that real-world success involves hard work
Proactive aggression
refers to hurtful behavior that is initiated to
achieve a goal. Johnny kicks Manuel to gain possession of the block pile. Sally spreads a rumor about Moriah replacing her as Sara’s best
friend.
Reactive aggression
occurs in response to being hurt, threatened, or deprived. Manuel, infuriated at Johnny, kicks him back.
Relational aggression
acts designed to hurt our relationships. Not inviting Sara toa birthday party, spreading rumors, or tattling on a disliked classmate allqualify as relationally aggressive acts
Bullying
Occurs when one or more children (or adults) harass or target a specific child for systematic abuse
Bully-victims
Includes exceptionally aggressive children (with externalizing disorders) who repeatedly bully and get victimized
Bully-victims
Includes exceptionally aggressive children (with externalizing disorders) who repeatedly bully and get victimized
Cyberbullying
Involves systematic harassment conducted through
electronic media
Bystander behavior
Includes applauding or passively watching as someone is being victimized, thus encouraging a bully’s behavior
microsystem
This includes the child’s immediate environment and includes parents, siblings, friends, classmates, teachers, and other people that children directly interact with in their community.
exosystem
This includes social structures that indirectly affect a child through their influences on different microsystems. For example, this might include parental work, neighborhoods, popular media, and the microsystems of peers.
authoritative parents
In the parenting-styles framework,
the best possible childrearing style, in which
parents rank high on both nurturance and discipline,
providing both love and clear family rules.
authoritarian parents
In the parenting-styles framework,
a type of child-rearing in which parents provide plenty of rules but rank low on child-centeredness, stressing
unquestioning obedience.
permissive parents
In the parenting-styles framework, a type of child-rearing in which parents provide few rules but rank high on child-centeredness, being extremely loving but providing little discipline.
rejecting-neglecting parents
In the parenting-styles framework, the worst child-rearing approach, is in which parents provide little discipline and little nurturing or love.
Resilient Children
confront terrible conditions such as parental
abuse, poverty, and war and go on to construct successful, loving lives.
Secular Trend
-Declining age of puberty
-Menarche (first menstruation)
-Today about 1 in 5 European American girls begin breast development as young as age 8.
onset
Exploring sexual desire
Onset is tied to output of adrenal androgens
and testosterone production (around age 10).
Teenagers
Threshold androgen level primes initial
feelings.
Environmental feedback heightens interest in
sex.
Primary sexual characteristics
refer to the body changes directly involved in
reproduction. The growth of the penis and menstruation are examples of primary
sexual characteristics
Secondary sexual characteristics
is the label for the hundreds of other changes
that accompany puberty, such as breast development, the growth of pubic hair,
voice changes, and alterations in the texture of the skin.
HPG
-Hypothalamus, Pituitary gland, gonads
-increase production of hormones to create primary/secondary characteristics
-The three-phase hormonal
sequence that triggers
puberty
Anorexia nervosa
the most serious eating disorder, is defined by self-starvation—specifically to the point of being 85 percent of one’s ideal body weight or less.
Bulimia nervosa
is typically not life-threatening because the person’s weight
often stays within a normal range. However, because this disorder involves frequent
binging (at least once weekly eating sprees in which thousands of calories may be
consumed in a matter of hours) and either purging (getting rid of the food by vomiting or misusing laxatives and diuretics) or fasting, bulimia can seriously compromise
health. In addition to producing deficiencies of basic nutrients, the purging episodes
can cause mouth sores, ulcers in the esophagus, and the loss of tooth enamel due to
being exposed to stomach acid.
Binge eating disorder
involves recurrent out-of-control eating. The person wolfs down huge quantities of food and then is wracked by disgust, guilt, and shame
Piaget (Classic theory of teenage thinking)
Formal operational thinking
Ability to think logically about concepts and hypothetical
possibilities
Ability to think scientifically
Application to real life
Considering and debating controversial issues
Planning for future life
Behaving like adults
Criticism
Formal operational reasoning not universal; societal influences
Kohlberg (Classic theory of teenage thinking)
-during adolescence we become capable of developing a moral code that guides our lives.
Preconventional thought : A person operates according to a “Will I be punished or rewarded?” mentality.
Conventional thought: : Person’s morality centers on the need to obey society’s rules
Postconventional thought: : Person has a personal moral code that transcends society’s rules.
Elkind (Classic theory of teenage thinking)
-Elkind
Awareness of difference between what adults say and do emerges
Sensitivity to what others think
Adolescent egocentrism
Linked to ability to evaluate adult world and society
Includes imaginary audience and personal fable
Peer influence
… adolescents make
riskier decisions when
they are with their
peers?
Research suggests
that being with peers
has enormous effect
on young teens.
Reckless driving
Binge drinking
Mental health
Illegal acts accelerate when people reach their 20s.
Few suicides, but 1 in 6 U.S. teens considered it.
Self-mutilation is more prevalent.
Non-suicidal self-injury: Cutting, mutilating one’s body
Bullying; depression
Adolescent-limited turmoil
antisocial behavior that is specific to adolescence and does not persist later in adult life
Life-course difficulties
antisocial behavior that persists into adult life
intrinsic motivation
The drive
to act based on the pleasure
of taking that action in itself,
not for an external reinforcer
or reward.
extrinsic motivation
The drive
to take an action because
that activity offers external
reinforcers such as praise,
money, or a good grade.
Physical abuse
refers to bodily injury that
leaves bruises. It encompasses everything from overzealous spanking to battering that
may lead to a child’s death.
Neglectful abuse
refers to caregivers’ failure to provide adequate
supervision and care. It might mean abandoning the child, not providing sufficient
food, or failing to enroll a son or daughter in school.
Emotional abuse
refers to continual shaming or terrorizing or exploiting a child
Sexual abuse
covers the spectrum
from rape and incest to fondling and exhibitionistic acts.
Effects of child abuse
-Suffers from externalizing and internalizing problems
-most get rejected by their peers
-may compromise frontal lobe impairment.
-those who were sexually abused can have changes to their DNA from epigenetic causes.
-depression, substance abuse
-may develop heart diseases
-most will grow up to abuse their own children
