Human growth and development Flashcards
1
Q
Anabolism
A
the building-up aspect of metabolism or building to peak
2
Q
catabolism
A
breaking-down aspect of metabolism or decline
3
Q
Epigenetics
A
Nature vs nurture
4
Q
Brain regions
A
Brain stem/hindbrain limbic region/midbrain cortex/forebrain
5
Q
Brain stem/hindbrain
A
sleep, respiration, motor coordination and organization, and reflexes.
6
Q
limbic region/midbrain
A
limbic system assists in various processes relating to cognition; including spatial memory, learning, motivation, emotional processing, and social processing
7
Q
cortex/forebrain
A
controls body temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of emotions
8
Q
Corpus callosum
A
connects the left and right hemispheres, cranial nerves start here
9
Q
Limbic
A
amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus
10
Q
Cerebral cortex includes what parts of the brain :
A
occipital parietal temporal frontal
11
Q
What does the occipital lobe do
A
vision and visual processing,
12
Q
What does the parietal lobe do
A
Visuospatial Orientation, Somatosensation,
13
Q
What does the temporal lobe do
A
Language Comprehension, Auditory Perception, auditory, permanent memory
14
Q
What does the Frontal lobe do
A
Motivation, Planning, Inhibition, Motion, Language Expression
15
Q
How is the nervous system divided
A
Central Nervous system > brain and spinal cord;
Peripheral nervous system>motor neurons and sensory neurons
16
Q
What does the Cerebral Cortex do
A
Information Processing, Complex Cognition, Perception
17
Q
What do the Subcortical Regions do
A
Basic Drives, Emotion, Memory, Fine Motor Skill
18
Q
What does the Brainstem do
A
Alertness, Vital Functions
19
Q
What does the Cerebellum do
A
controls Coordination
20
Q
What lobe of the brain controls smell, movement, organization/planning/meta-cognition
A
Frontal lobe
21
Q
What lobe of the brain controls auditory, permanent memory
A
Temporal lobe
22
Q
What lobe of the brain controls spatial reasoning, touch
A
Parietal lobe
23
Q
What lobe of the brain controls sensory through eyes
A
Occipital
24
Q
Which division of the nervous system controls sympathetic and Parasympathetic
A
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
25
Sympathetic nervous system does what process
ramps up - fight, flight, freeze
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Parasympathetic nervous system does what process
calms - rest and digest
27
Basal Ganglia
Fine Motor Control
28
Limbic System
Emotional Valence and Reactions, Memory
29
Thalamus
Relay Station to Cortex
30
Hypothalamus
Hormonal, Vital Sign, and Sleep Regulation
31
Brainstem Divisions:
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla
32
Functions of the Brainstem:
Alertness, Facial Motor and Sensory Function, Cardiac and Breathing Regulation
33
Cerebellum Functions:
Motor Coordination, Primitive Learning and Emotional Networks
34
The Neuron parts
Cell Body (soma) Dendrites Axon
35
Cell Body (soma)
Cell nucleus,
organelles,
Production and storage of enzymes,
messenger molecules,
receptors
36
Dendrites
Short and branch-like, Receptive, at spine
37
Axon
Long fiber, Conductive, at terminal button
38
Electrical Conduction
Ligands bind receptors on the dendrite or soma,
Ligands: hormones, drugs, enzymes,
Activation of excitatory receptors results in action potential,
Electrical impulse movement along the axon: conduction
39
Chemical transmission
the primary way that nerves communicate with each other in the nervous system
40
Chemical transmission requires the following steps
1. Synthesis of the neurotransmitter in the presynaptic nerve terminal.
2. Storage of the neurotransmitter in secretory vesicles.
3. Regulated release of neurotransmitter in the synaptic space between the pre- and post-synaptic neurons.
4. The presence of specific receptors for the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane, such that application of the neurotransmitter to the synapse mimics the effects of nerve stimulation.
5. A means for termination of the action of the released neurotransmitter.
41
Genetic disorders
Phenylketonuria Sickle cell anemia Tay-Sachs Turner syndrome Klinefelter's syndrome
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Phenylketonuria (PKU):
Inability to neutralize amino acid, phenylalanine
43
Sickle cell anemia:
abnormal red blood cells. In 1:500 African-American births
44
Tay-sachs:
CNS degeneration because of inability to metabolize fats in
45
Kleinfelter?s syndrome:
Extra X chromosome (XXY).
46
Behavioral learning theories of stimulus-response:
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning
47
Classical conditioning theorists:
Pavlov, Watson, Wolpe
48
Operant conditioning theorists:
Skinner, Thorndike
49
Social learning theorists
Bandura, Rotter
50
Classical Conditioning :
Pairing unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) with unconditioned response (salivation) through conditioned stimulus (tone, buzzer, bell).
51
Famous Classical Conditioning experiments :
Pavlov's dogs,
Watson's Little Albert and white mice,
Wolpe's systematic desensitization
52
Operant conditioning:
a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior
53
Thorndike's Law of Effect:
Reward = reinforcement
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Positive Reinforcement Reward
increases desired behavior
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Negative reinforcement
Removes aversive - increases desired behavior
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Positive Punishment Aversive
Reduces undesired behavior
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Negative Punishment Removes reward
reduces undesired behavior
58
Why use positive reinforcement?
Highly effective in teaching new behavior Highly effective in reducing problem behavior Pairing the counselor with reinforcers enhances the therapeutic relationship Effects are long-lasting
59
Premack principle (grandma?s law):
Only reward behavior after task completion,
Eat your vegetables before you get dessert
60
Differential Reinforcement
selectively reinforcing desired behaviors while withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors.
61
One of the most effective ways to treat problem behavior
Provide reinforcement for behavior we want to increase
Withhold reinforcement for behavior we want to decrease (extinction)
Select an alternative to the problem behavior that serves the same function.
Be clear about what you want the client to do.
62
Examples of Differential Reinforcement:
Hitting for attention instead saying, "Look at me!"
Crying to escape task instead asking for a break,
Screaming to get iPad instead teaching "Can I have iPad?"
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Primary reinforcer
things that motivate behavior because they satiate an individual's basic survival needs (escape, attention, tangibles)
64
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers (money, tokens)
65
Extinction
the behavior ceases when the conditioned stimulus is presented, or the behavior becomes sporadic when the stimulus is present
66
spontaneous recovery
can only happen after extinction and usually follows a rest period where no stimuli are presented
67
Stimulus discrimination
the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli
68
eventual generalization
occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does
69
Token economy
a system in which the learner earns tokens by engaging in a targeted behavior
70
Intermittent reinforcement (slot machine effect)
the delivery of a reward at irregular intervals, a method that has been determined to yield the greatest effort from the subject
71
Extinction process
Step 1: We stop reinforcing a behavior Step 2: Extinction burst (gets worse before it gets better) Step 3: Because reinforcement is no longer available, the behavior decreases
72
Examples of Extinction:
Ignoring attention-maintained behavior, No longer reinforcing tantrums by withholding tangibles
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Ethical considerations of Extinction
Increase in problem behavior may not be safe or manageable, Inconsistent use will increase problem behavior Extinction alone doesn?t teach an effective replacement behavior ? use with differential reinforcement
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Reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval
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Fixed ratio
(e.g., exactly every 5 tasks)
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Variable ratio
(e.g., an average of every 10 tasks)
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Fixed interval
(e.g., exactly every 60 mins)
78
Variable interval
(e.g., between 30-90 mins, with an average of 60 mins)
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Variable ratio and interval equals what
intermittent reinforcement
80
Intermittent reinforcement
Intermittent reinforcement is more motivating than providing the reinforcer every time
81
Piaget?s Cognitive Development stages
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operations Formal operations
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Sensorimotor
(0-2 yrs) Sensory/motor coordination. Learn cause-and-effect, object permanence
83
Preoperational
(2-7 yrs) Imitative and imaginative play, figurative. Egocentric thinking
84
Concrete operations
(7-11 yrs) Relational terms (bigger, yesterday, heavier); rule-bound & logical reasoning, not abstract
85
Formal operations
(12+) Abstract thought, develop hypotheses, deductive reasoning. Not everyone reaches this level.
86
Zygotsky's zone of proximal development (ZPD) and
refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner
87
scaffolding
activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development
88
Cognitive dissonance (Festinger)
inconsistency among beliefs or behaviors causes an uncomfortable psychological tension
89
Adolescent?s imaginary audience (Elkind)
feel that their behavior or actions are the main focus of other people's attention
90
Adolescent personal fable
that they are special and unique, so much so that, none of life's difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior
91
Crystallized intelligence (Cattell)
your stored knowledge, accumulated over the years
92
fluid intelligence (Cattell)
your ability to process new information, learn, and solve problems
93
Piaget's core ideas
Schema, Disequilibrium (something happens) return to equilibrium through Assimilation (no change to schema) or Accommodation (change to schema)
94
Freud: Psychosexual Development
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
95
Oral Stage
(0-1 yrs) Pleasure through the mouth (sucking, etc.).
96
Oral Stage Fixation:
Dependency, naivete, smoking, overeating
97
Anal Stage
(1-3 yrs) Pleasure through anus and buttocks
98
Anal Stage Fixation:
Stinginess, obsessive cleanliness/messiness
99
Phallic Stage
(3-5 yrs) Pleasure through genitals
100
Phallic Stage Fixation:
Sexual exploitation, oedipal/electra complex
101
Latency Stage
(6-11) Mastery of social skills, sexual interests become dormant
102
Latency Stage Fixation:
Anxiety relief through defense mechanisms
103
Genital Stage
(12 plus) Re-emergence of sexual impulses and capacity for desire/love
104
Genital Stage Fixation:
Re-emergence of complexes, impulsivity
105
Learning theory (e.g., Skinner)
a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement)
106
nativist (Chomsky)
children's brains contain a Language Acquisition Device which holds the grammatical universals.
107
Chomsky's language acquisition device
a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn and understand language
108
Semantics:
study of word meanings
109
Syntax:
use of grammar
110
Pragmatics:
use of language in social context (e.g., taking turns)
111
Phonology:
What a language sounds like
112
Morpheme:
language units; e.g., "girls" has two units, "girl" and "s"
113
Broca?s area:
speech production (aphasia = lack of speech)
114
Wernicke?s area:
receptive language (comprehension)
115
Freud's structure of personality
Id (pleasure principle) Ego (reality principle) Superego (internalized parent)
116
Repression
Unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses
117
Regression
Reversion to earlier stage of development, in face of unacceptable impulses
118
Displacement
Redirecting thoughts/feelings from unsafe person to safe person
119
Projection
Misattribution of own thoughts and feelings onto another person
120
Rationalization
Convincing oneself or others that an action was reasonable in the circumstances
121
Compensation/Sublimation
Channeling unacceptable impulses, thoughts, and emotions into more acceptable ones
122
Denial
Rejection of thoughts, feelings, or ideas that feel threatening
123
Intellectualization
Avoiding feeling emotions through overemphasis on rational thought
124
Reaction Formation
Converting unwanted or dangerous thoughts or feelings into their opposites
125
Erikson: Psychosocial Theory
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
126
Trust vs. Mistrust
(0-1 yrs) Nurturance and trust in parent-child relationship
127
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
(1-3 yrs) Independence and self-initiative, and defiance
128
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3-5 yrs) Ambition, responsibility, respect for others
129
Industry vs. Inferiority
(6-11 yrs) Strive for competence; emphasis on community interaction
130
Identity vs. Role Confusion
(12-25 yrs) Search for uniqueness, personal goals; peer relationships
131
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(12-25 yrs) Love/friendship vs. independence and self-absorption
132
Generativity vs. Stagnation
(25-65 yrs) Work productivity, enhance future generations
133
Integrity vs. Despair
(65+ yrs) Pride & satisfaction vs. meaninglessness & regret
134
Lorenz Attachment theory:
imprinting during critical/sensitive periods
135
Bowlby and Ainsworth Attachment theory
(infant strange situation),
Securely attached (explore environment, protest separation)
Anxious-avoidant (withdrawal)
Anxious-ambivalent (clinging, refuses to explore, protest separation vehemently)
Disorganized (numb, confusion at reunion)
136
Attachment theory Harry Harlow?s rhesus monkeys
Food bottle vs. warm terrycloth covering
137
Mancia: Identity Status (Expansion of Erikson)
Identity achievement
Identity moratorium
Identity foreclosure
Identity diffusion
138
Identity achievement
Committing to goals, and taking action to achieve them
139
Identity moratorium
Protracted process of taking in information before deciding on course of action to achieve goals; leads to lack of progress
140
Identity foreclosure
Adolescent goals are determined by others (parents, friends) without any questioning/pushback
141
Identity diffusion
Procrastination or confusion to the extent that goals are not formed
142
Lovinger: Ego Development Theory
Pre-social Self-differentiation from world
Symbiotic Self-differentiation from other people
Self-protective Affirm separate identity, can be demanding
Conformist obey group rules, strive for family acceptance
Self-awareness, self-conscious Strive for stability and maturity
Conscientious Internalize rules and morality
Individualistic Strive for individuality, awareness of inner conflicts
Autonomous Strive for self-fulfillment, cope with inner conflicts
Integrated Consolidated identity; accept inner conflicts as part of self
143
Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological
144
Kubler-Ross: Stages of Grief
Shock and Denial
Anger
Bargaining and guilt
Hopelessness and depression
Acceptance
145
Costa & McRae's OCEAN model: Five-Factor Model of Personality
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism The NEO-PI and 16PF were based on this
146
Openness
Curious and imaginative vs. closed and conventional
147
Conscientiousness
Planful and responsible vs. spontaneous and risk-taking
148
Extraversion
Outgoing and energetic vs. solitude and calmness
149
Agreeableness
Trusting and compassionate vs. guarded and self-achievement focused
150
Neuroticism
Highly affected by environmental stressors vs. high coping ability and less affected by environment
151
Kohlberg: Moral Development
Level I: Preconventional
-Stage1: Obedience and
punishment (survival of fittest)
-Stage 2: Instrumental hedonism
(satisfying own needs)
Level II: Conventional
-Stage 3: "Good boy, good girl"
(seeking approval)
-Stage 4: Law and order (following
rules without question)
Level III: Postconventional
-Stage 5: Social/moral contract and
system of laws (democratic)
-Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
(respect = end, not means)
152
Gilligan: Moral Development
Orientation to individual survival, Self-focused, goal is survival
Goodness as self-sacrifice Other-focused, altruism
Morality of nonviolence Equilibrium between individual needs and altruism Choices seek to avoid harm to self and others
153
Piaget: Moral Development
Premoral Moral realism Moral relativism
154
Piaget: Moral Development Premoral
(0-4 years) Limited awareness of rules
155
Piaget: Moral Development Moral realism
(4-7 years) Rules are concrete and must be obeyed and enforced. Rules are accepted without question.
156
Piaget: Moral Development Moral relativism
(7+ years) Understands reason behind rules, how to change rules cooperatively, be consensus, or unilaterally by authority There is no absolute right and wrong Actions are judged by intention, not just by consequences
157
Myers and Sweeney: Indivisible Self/Wellness Model
Physical: Exercise, nutrition
Essential: Spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, self-care
Social: Friendship, love
Coping: Leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic beliefs
Creative: Thinking, emotions, control, work, humor
158
Gesell scales for developmental milestones (physical/cognitive and language/personal-social)
Measures developmental status of infants and young children. Assesses gross motor, fine motor, language, personal-social, and adaptive development.
159
According to Havighurst, an individual must successfully achieve the following eight developmental tasks during the adolescent period:
accept one's body,
adopt a masculine or feminine social role,
achieve emotional independence from parents,
develop close relationships with peers of the same and opposite gender,
prepare for an occupation,
prepare for marriage and family life,
establish a personal value or ethical system
achieve socially responsible behaviour.
160
Gould theory of adult development (correcting assumptions related to dependency on parents)
charts inner stages of consciousness in which the adult gives up various illusions and myths held over from childhood.
161
Peck's expansion on final two Erikson stages
valuing wisdom vs. valuing physical power
mental flexibility vs. mental rigidity
ego differentiation vs. work role preoccupation
body transcendence vs. body preoccupation
ego transcendence vs. ego preoccupation
162
Levinson?s theory of adult male development (Seasons of a Man?s Life)
adulthood is made up of alternating periods of stability and transition
163
Gilligan?s observations of differences in male-female communication
Women change the rules in order to preserve relationships;
men abide by the rules and see relationships as replaceable
164
Generations
General issue (1891-1924)
Silent generation (1925-1942)
Baby boomers (1943-1960)
Generation X (1961-1981)
Generation Y/Millennials (1982-2000)
165
Parenting styles
Authoritarian authoritative permissive uninvolved
166
authoritarian/autocratic
submissiveness, rebellion, lower achievement
167
authoritative/democratic/egalitarian
independence, assertiveness, responsible
168
permissive/laissez-faire
self-centered, aggressive, lower achievement
169
uninvolved/unengaged
neglect causes attachment issues or parentified child
170
Dreikurs Parent Education?
Influenced by Adler and he Developed Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP)
171
Dreikurs Parent Education main points
Encouragement vs. praise vs. bribery
Logical and natural consequences vs. punishment
Four goals of misbehavior
172
Encouragement
Occurs after the child performs behavior or completes task
Focus is on encouragement, intrinsic reinforcement, and logical consequences
"I have faith in you." "I'm proud of you." "I know you can do it: let me help you get started."
173
Praise (reinforcement)
Focus is on extrinsic reinforcement,
Occurs before child completes or starts task,
"Good job." "I liked the way you handled that." "You played a good game."
174
Bribery
Focus on extrinsic manipulation of child's behavior,
Occurs during child's misbehavior
"If you quiet down, I'll give you a candy bar." "I'll buy you a surprise if you stop fighting." "Stop bothering me, and you won't have to help with the dishes."
175
Logical Consequences
express the reality of the rules established by social order,
related directly to the misbehavior.
cancel out the practice of adults making moral judgments
have a here and now effect deals with the past.
are such that the adult can maintain the pleasant voice of a friendly bystander.
176
Punishment
express the power of personal authority rather than social reality.
rarely related to the misbehavior.
Punishment, replete with all the accompanying lecturing, nagging, and insulting, inevitably involves moral judgment.
Punishment has a tendency to disturb the relationship of the person to the situation and to the person in authority.
177
Dreikurs Four goals of misbehavior
Attention
Power
Revenge
Display of inadequacy
178
Goal of misbehavior: Attention
ADULT'S REACTION: Feels annoyed,
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be noticed
ADULT'S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Gives attention when the child is not making a bid for it & ignores misbehaving child
179
Goal of misbehavior: Power struggles
ADULT'S REACTION: Feels threatened
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be in charge
ADULT'S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Withdraw from the conflict, Take your sail out of their wind?
180
Goal of misbehavior: Revenge
ADULT'S REACTION: Feels deeply hurt
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to get even
ADULT'S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Avoid punishment, Enlist a "buddy" for them
181
Goal of misbehavior: Inadequacy
ADULT'S REACTION: Feels helpless and hopeless
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be left alone
ADULT'S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Lots of encouragement
182
Punishment
183
Logical Consequences
