Human growth and development Flashcards
Anabolism
the building-up aspect of metabolism or building to peak
catabolism
breaking-down aspect of metabolism or decline
Epigenetics
Nature vs nurture
Brain regions
Brain stem/hindbrain limbic region/midbrain cortex/forebrain
Brain stem/hindbrain
sleep, respiration, motor coordination and organization, and reflexes.
limbic region/midbrain
limbic system assists in various processes relating to cognition; including spatial memory, learning, motivation, emotional processing, and social processing
cortex/forebrain
controls body temperature, reproductive functions, eating, sleeping, and the display of emotions
Corpus callosum
connects the left and right hemispheres, cranial nerves start here
Limbic
amygdala, hypothalamus, hippocampus, thalamus
Cerebral cortex includes what parts of the brain :
occipital parietal temporal frontal
What does the occipital lobe do
vision and visual processing,
What does the parietal lobe do
Visuospatial Orientation, Somatosensation,
What does the temporal lobe do
Language Comprehension, Auditory Perception, auditory, permanent memory
What does the Frontal lobe do
Motivation, Planning, Inhibition, Motion, Language Expression
How is the nervous system divided
Central Nervous system > brain and spinal cord;
Peripheral nervous system>motor neurons and sensory neurons
What does the Cerebral Cortex do
Information Processing, Complex Cognition, Perception
What do the Subcortical Regions do
Basic Drives, Emotion, Memory, Fine Motor Skill
What does the Brainstem do
Alertness, Vital Functions
What does the Cerebellum do
controls Coordination
What lobe of the brain controls smell, movement, organization/planning/meta-cognition
Frontal lobe
What lobe of the brain controls auditory, permanent memory
Temporal lobe
What lobe of the brain controls spatial reasoning, touch
Parietal lobe
What lobe of the brain controls sensory through eyes
Occipital
Which division of the nervous system controls sympathetic and Parasympathetic
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Sympathetic nervous system does what process
ramps up - fight, flight, freeze
Parasympathetic nervous system does what process
calms - rest and digest
Basal Ganglia
Fine Motor Control
Limbic System
Emotional Valence and Reactions, Memory
Thalamus
Relay Station to Cortex
Hypothalamus
Hormonal, Vital Sign, and Sleep Regulation
Brainstem Divisions:
Midbrain, Pons, Medulla
Functions of the Brainstem:
Alertness, Facial Motor and Sensory Function, Cardiac and Breathing Regulation
Cerebellum Functions:
Motor Coordination, Primitive Learning and Emotional Networks
The Neuron parts
Cell Body (soma) Dendrites Axon
Cell Body (soma)
Cell nucleus,
organelles,
Production and storage of enzymes,
messenger molecules,
receptors
Dendrites
Short and branch-like, Receptive, at spine
Axon
Long fiber, Conductive, at terminal button
Electrical Conduction
Ligands bind receptors on the dendrite or soma,
Ligands: hormones, drugs, enzymes,
Activation of excitatory receptors results in action potential,
Electrical impulse movement along the axon: conduction
Chemical transmission
the primary way that nerves communicate with each other in the nervous system
Chemical transmission requires the following steps
- Synthesis of the neurotransmitter in the presynaptic nerve terminal.
- Storage of the neurotransmitter in secretory vesicles.
- Regulated release of neurotransmitter in the synaptic space between the pre- and post-synaptic neurons.
- The presence of specific receptors for the neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic membrane, such that application of the neurotransmitter to the synapse mimics the effects of nerve stimulation.
- A means for termination of the action of the released neurotransmitter.
Genetic disorders
Phenylketonuria Sickle cell anemia Tay-Sachs Turner syndrome Klinefelter’s syndrome
Phenylketonuria (PKU):
Inability to neutralize amino acid, phenylalanine
Sickle cell anemia:
abnormal red blood cells. In 1:500 African-American births
Tay-sachs:
CNS degeneration because of inability to metabolize fats in
Kleinfelter?s syndrome:
Extra X chromosome (XXY).
Behavioral learning theories of stimulus-response:
Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning
Classical conditioning theorists:
Pavlov, Watson, Wolpe
Operant conditioning theorists:
Skinner, Thorndike
Social learning theorists
Bandura, Rotter
Classical Conditioning :
Pairing unconditioned stimulus (meat powder) with unconditioned response (salivation) through conditioned stimulus (tone, buzzer, bell).
Famous Classical Conditioning experiments :
Pavlov’s dogs,
Watson’s Little Albert and white mice,
Wolpe’s systematic desensitization
Operant conditioning:
a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
Reward = reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement Reward
increases desired behavior
Negative reinforcement
Removes aversive - increases desired behavior
Positive Punishment Aversive
Reduces undesired behavior
Negative Punishment Removes reward
reduces undesired behavior
Why use positive reinforcement?
Highly effective in teaching new behavior Highly effective in reducing problem behavior Pairing the counselor with reinforcers enhances the therapeutic relationship Effects are long-lasting
Premack principle (grandma?s law):
Only reward behavior after task completion,
Eat your vegetables before you get dessert
Differential Reinforcement
selectively reinforcing desired behaviors while withholding reinforcement for undesired behaviors.
One of the most effective ways to treat problem behavior
Provide reinforcement for behavior we want to increase
Withhold reinforcement for behavior we want to decrease (extinction)
Select an alternative to the problem behavior that serves the same function.
Be clear about what you want the client to do.
Examples of Differential Reinforcement:
Hitting for attention instead saying, “Look at me!”
Crying to escape task instead asking for a break,
Screaming to get iPad instead teaching “Can I have iPad?”
Primary reinforcer
things that motivate behavior because they satiate an individual’s basic survival needs (escape, attention, tangibles)
secondary reinforcers
conditioned reinforcers (money, tokens)
Extinction
the behavior ceases when the conditioned stimulus is presented, or the behavior becomes sporadic when the stimulus is present
spontaneous recovery
can only happen after extinction and usually follows a rest period where no stimuli are presented
Stimulus discrimination
the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and similar stimuli
eventual generalization
occurs when a stimulus that is similar to an already-conditioned stimulus begins to produce the same response as the original stimulus does
Token economy
a system in which the learner earns tokens by engaging in a targeted behavior
Intermittent reinforcement (slot machine effect)
the delivery of a reward at irregular intervals, a method that has been determined to yield the greatest effort from the subject
Extinction process
Step 1: We stop reinforcing a behavior Step 2: Extinction burst (gets worse before it gets better) Step 3: Because reinforcement is no longer available, the behavior decreases
Examples of Extinction:
Ignoring attention-maintained behavior, No longer reinforcing tantrums by withholding tangibles
Ethical considerations of Extinction
Increase in problem behavior may not be safe or manageable, Inconsistent use will increase problem behavior Extinction alone doesn?t teach an effective replacement behavior ? use with differential reinforcement
Reinforcement schedules
Fixed ratio Variable ratio Fixed interval Variable interval
Fixed ratio
(e.g., exactly every 5 tasks)
Variable ratio
(e.g., an average of every 10 tasks)
Fixed interval
(e.g., exactly every 60 mins)
Variable interval
(e.g., between 30-90 mins, with an average of 60 mins)
Variable ratio and interval equals what
intermittent reinforcement
Intermittent reinforcement
Intermittent reinforcement is more motivating than providing the reinforcer every time
Piaget?s Cognitive Development stages
Sensorimotor Preoperational Concrete operations Formal operations
Sensorimotor
(0-2 yrs) Sensory/motor coordination. Learn cause-and-effect, object permanence
Preoperational
(2-7 yrs) Imitative and imaginative play, figurative. Egocentric thinking
Concrete operations
(7-11 yrs) Relational terms (bigger, yesterday, heavier); rule-bound & logical reasoning, not abstract
Formal operations
(12+) Abstract thought, develop hypotheses, deductive reasoning. Not everyone reaches this level.
Zygotsky’s zone of proximal development (ZPD) and
refers to the difference between what a learner can do without help and what he or she can achieve with guidance and encouragement from a skilled partner
scaffolding
activities provided by the educator, or more competent peer, to support the student as he or she is led through the zone of proximal development
Cognitive dissonance (Festinger)
inconsistency among beliefs or behaviors causes an uncomfortable psychological tension
Adolescent?s imaginary audience (Elkind)
feel that their behavior or actions are the main focus of other people’s attention
Adolescent personal fable
that they are special and unique, so much so that, none of life’s difficulties or problems will affect them regardless of their behavior
Crystallized intelligence (Cattell)
your stored knowledge, accumulated over the years
fluid intelligence (Cattell)
your ability to process new information, learn, and solve problems
Piaget’s core ideas
Schema, Disequilibrium (something happens) return to equilibrium through Assimilation (no change to schema) or Accommodation (change to schema)
Freud: Psychosexual Development
Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital
Oral Stage
(0-1 yrs) Pleasure through the mouth (sucking, etc.).
Oral Stage Fixation:
Dependency, naivete, smoking, overeating
Anal Stage
(1-3 yrs) Pleasure through anus and buttocks
Anal Stage Fixation:
Stinginess, obsessive cleanliness/messiness
Phallic Stage
(3-5 yrs) Pleasure through genitals
Phallic Stage Fixation:
Sexual exploitation, oedipal/electra complex
Latency Stage
(6-11) Mastery of social skills, sexual interests become dormant
Latency Stage Fixation:
Anxiety relief through defense mechanisms
Genital Stage
(12 plus) Re-emergence of sexual impulses and capacity for desire/love
Genital Stage Fixation:
Re-emergence of complexes, impulsivity
Learning theory (e.g., Skinner)
a person is first exposed to a stimulus, which elicits a response, and the response is then reinforced (stimulus, response, reinforcement)
nativist (Chomsky)
children’s brains contain a Language Acquisition Device which holds the grammatical universals.
Chomsky’s language acquisition device
a hypothetical tool hardwired into the brain that helps children rapidly learn and understand language
Semantics:
study of word meanings
Syntax:
use of grammar
Pragmatics:
use of language in social context (e.g., taking turns)
Phonology:
What a language sounds like
Morpheme:
language units; e.g., “girls” has two units, “girl” and “s”
Broca?s area:
speech production (aphasia = lack of speech)
Wernicke?s area:
receptive language (comprehension)
Freud’s structure of personality
Id (pleasure principle) Ego (reality principle) Superego (internalized parent)
Repression
Unconscious blocking of unacceptable thoughts, feelings and impulses
Regression
Reversion to earlier stage of development, in face of unacceptable impulses
Displacement
Redirecting thoughts/feelings from unsafe person to safe person
Projection
Misattribution of own thoughts and feelings onto another person
Rationalization
Convincing oneself or others that an action was reasonable in the circumstances
Compensation/Sublimation
Channeling unacceptable impulses, thoughts, and emotions into more acceptable ones
Denial
Rejection of thoughts, feelings, or ideas that feel threatening
Intellectualization
Avoiding feeling emotions through overemphasis on rational thought
Reaction Formation
Converting unwanted or dangerous thoughts or feelings into their opposites
Erikson: Psychosocial Theory
Trust vs. Mistrust
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
Initiative vs. Guilt
Industry vs. Inferiority
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Intimacy vs. Isolation
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Integrity vs. Despair
Trust vs. Mistrust
(0-1 yrs) Nurturance and trust in parent-child relationship
Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt
(1-3 yrs) Independence and self-initiative, and defiance
Initiative vs. Guilt
(3-5 yrs) Ambition, responsibility, respect for others
Industry vs. Inferiority
(6-11 yrs) Strive for competence; emphasis on community interaction
Identity vs. Role Confusion
(12-25 yrs) Search for uniqueness, personal goals; peer relationships
Intimacy vs. Isolation
(12-25 yrs) Love/friendship vs. independence and self-absorption
Generativity vs. Stagnation
(25-65 yrs) Work productivity, enhance future generations
Integrity vs. Despair
(65+ yrs) Pride & satisfaction vs. meaninglessness & regret
Lorenz Attachment theory:
imprinting during critical/sensitive periods
Bowlby and Ainsworth Attachment theory
(infant strange situation),
Securely attached (explore environment, protest separation)
Anxious-avoidant (withdrawal)
Anxious-ambivalent (clinging, refuses to explore, protest separation vehemently)
Disorganized (numb, confusion at reunion)
Attachment theory Harry Harlow?s rhesus monkeys
Food bottle vs. warm terrycloth covering
Mancia: Identity Status (Expansion of Erikson)
Identity achievement
Identity moratorium
Identity foreclosure
Identity diffusion
Identity achievement
Committing to goals, and taking action to achieve them
Identity moratorium
Protracted process of taking in information before deciding on course of action to achieve goals; leads to lack of progress
Identity foreclosure
Adolescent goals are determined by others (parents, friends) without any questioning/pushback
Identity diffusion
Procrastination or confusion to the extent that goals are not formed
Lovinger: Ego Development Theory
Pre-social Self-differentiation from world
Symbiotic Self-differentiation from other people
Self-protective Affirm separate identity, can be demanding
Conformist obey group rules, strive for family acceptance
Self-awareness, self-conscious Strive for stability and maturity
Conscientious Internalize rules and morality
Individualistic Strive for individuality, awareness of inner conflicts
Autonomous Strive for self-fulfillment, cope with inner conflicts
Integrated Consolidated identity; accept inner conflicts as part of self
Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Belonging
Safety
Physiological
Kubler-Ross: Stages of Grief
Shock and Denial
Anger
Bargaining and guilt
Hopelessness and depression
Acceptance
Costa & McRae’s OCEAN model: Five-Factor Model of Personality
Openness Conscientiousness Extraversion Agreeableness Neuroticism The NEO-PI and 16PF were based on this
Openness
Curious and imaginative vs. closed and conventional
Conscientiousness
Planful and responsible vs. spontaneous and risk-taking
Extraversion
Outgoing and energetic vs. solitude and calmness
Agreeableness
Trusting and compassionate vs. guarded and self-achievement focused
Neuroticism
Highly affected by environmental stressors vs. high coping ability and less affected by environment
Kohlberg: Moral Development
Level I: Preconventional
-Stage1: Obedience and
punishment (survival of fittest)
-Stage 2: Instrumental hedonism
(satisfying own needs)
Level II: Conventional
-Stage 3: “Good boy, good girl”
(seeking approval)
-Stage 4: Law and order (following
rules without question)
Level III: Postconventional
-Stage 5: Social/moral contract and
system of laws (democratic)
-Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
(respect = end, not means)
Gilligan: Moral Development
Orientation to individual survival, Self-focused, goal is survival
Goodness as self-sacrifice Other-focused, altruism
Morality of nonviolence Equilibrium between individual needs and altruism Choices seek to avoid harm to self and others
Piaget: Moral Development
Premoral Moral realism Moral relativism
Piaget: Moral Development Premoral
(0-4 years) Limited awareness of rules
Piaget: Moral Development Moral realism
(4-7 years) Rules are concrete and must be obeyed and enforced. Rules are accepted without question.
Piaget: Moral Development Moral relativism
(7+ years) Understands reason behind rules, how to change rules cooperatively, be consensus, or unilaterally by authority There is no absolute right and wrong Actions are judged by intention, not just by consequences
Myers and Sweeney: Indivisible Self/Wellness Model
Physical: Exercise, nutrition
Essential: Spirituality, gender identity, cultural identity, self-care
Social: Friendship, love
Coping: Leisure, stress management, self-worth, realistic beliefs
Creative: Thinking, emotions, control, work, humor
Gesell scales for developmental milestones (physical/cognitive and language/personal-social)
Measures developmental status of infants and young children. Assesses gross motor, fine motor, language, personal-social, and adaptive development.
According to Havighurst, an individual must successfully achieve the following eight developmental tasks during the adolescent period:
accept one’s body,
adopt a masculine or feminine social role,
achieve emotional independence from parents,
develop close relationships with peers of the same and opposite gender,
prepare for an occupation,
prepare for marriage and family life,
establish a personal value or ethical system
achieve socially responsible behaviour.
Gould theory of adult development (correcting assumptions related to dependency on parents)
charts inner stages of consciousness in which the adult gives up various illusions and myths held over from childhood.
Peck’s expansion on final two Erikson stages
valuing wisdom vs. valuing physical power
mental flexibility vs. mental rigidity
ego differentiation vs. work role preoccupation
body transcendence vs. body preoccupation
ego transcendence vs. ego preoccupation
Levinson?s theory of adult male development (Seasons of a Man?s Life)
adulthood is made up of alternating periods of stability and transition
Gilligan?s observations of differences in male-female communication
Women change the rules in order to preserve relationships;
men abide by the rules and see relationships as replaceable
Generations
General issue (1891-1924)
Silent generation (1925-1942)
Baby boomers (1943-1960)
Generation X (1961-1981)
Generation Y/Millennials (1982-2000)
Parenting styles
Authoritarian authoritative permissive uninvolved
authoritarian/autocratic
submissiveness, rebellion, lower achievement
authoritative/democratic/egalitarian
independence, assertiveness, responsible
permissive/laissez-faire
self-centered, aggressive, lower achievement
uninvolved/unengaged
neglect causes attachment issues or parentified child
Dreikurs Parent Education?
Influenced by Adler and he Developed Systematic Training for Effective Parenting (STEP)
Dreikurs Parent Education main points
Encouragement vs. praise vs. bribery
Logical and natural consequences vs. punishment
Four goals of misbehavior
Encouragement
Occurs after the child performs behavior or completes task
Focus is on encouragement, intrinsic reinforcement, and logical consequences
“I have faith in you.” “I’m proud of you.” “I know you can do it: let me help you get started.”
Praise (reinforcement)
Focus is on extrinsic reinforcement,
Occurs before child completes or starts task,
“Good job.” “I liked the way you handled that.” “You played a good game.”
Bribery
Focus on extrinsic manipulation of child’s behavior,
Occurs during child’s misbehavior
“If you quiet down, I’ll give you a candy bar.” “I’ll buy you a surprise if you stop fighting.” “Stop bothering me, and you won’t have to help with the dishes.”
Logical Consequences
express the reality of the rules established by social order,
related directly to the misbehavior.
cancel out the practice of adults making moral judgments
have a here and now effect deals with the past.
are such that the adult can maintain the pleasant voice of a friendly bystander.
Punishment
express the power of personal authority rather than social reality.
rarely related to the misbehavior.
Punishment, replete with all the accompanying lecturing, nagging, and insulting, inevitably involves moral judgment.
Punishment has a tendency to disturb the relationship of the person to the situation and to the person in authority.
Dreikurs Four goals of misbehavior
Attention
Power
Revenge
Display of inadequacy
Goal of misbehavior: Attention
ADULT’S REACTION: Feels annoyed,
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be noticed
ADULT’S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Gives attention when the child is not making a bid for it & ignores misbehaving child
Goal of misbehavior: Power struggles
ADULT’S REACTION: Feels threatened
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be in charge
ADULT’S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Withdraw from the conflict, Take your sail out of their wind?
Goal of misbehavior: Revenge
ADULT’S REACTION: Feels deeply hurt
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to get even
ADULT’S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Avoid punishment, Enlist a “buddy” for them
Goal of misbehavior: Inadequacy
ADULT’S REACTION: Feels helpless and hopeless
THE PROBLEM GOAL AND FAULTY LOGIC: Wants to be left alone
ADULT’S CORRECTIVE PROCEDURES: Lots of encouragement
Punishment
Logical Consequences
