Human Development Flashcards
1
Q
What are maturational tasks?
A
Tasks that are achieved at each stage, heralding transition to the next stage
2
Q
Social development at 4-6 weeks?
A
Social smile at 6 weeks
Recognise mums face
Shows preference for human faces
3
Q
Maturational task at 6-8 weeks?
A
Cooing
4
Q
When goes grasp reflex disappear?
A
3 months
5
Q
When can a baby localsie a sound source?
A
3 months
6
Q
What social development occurs at 3 months?
A
Squeals with pleasure
Discriminates smile
7
Q
When do sound experiments occur?
A
5 months
8
Q
When do babies reach out/oral exploration?
A
5 months
9
Q
When does palmar grasp occur?
A
6 months
10
Q
Which language task occurs at 6 months?
A
Double syllable sounds
11
Q
When does hand to hand transfer occur?
A
6 months
12
Q
What sensory maturational task occurs at 6 months?
A
Localise sounds 45cm lateral to either ear
13
Q
When does stranger anxiety occur?
A
9-10 months
14
Q
When can peek-a-boo be played?
A
9-10 months
15
Q
When can a baby crawl?
A
9-10 months
16
Q
When does pincer grasp occur?
A
9-10 months
17
Q
When does a baby start looking for dropped toys?
A
9-10 months
18
Q
When can a baby say 1-2 words?
A
1 year
19
Q
When can a baby stand momentarily?
A
1 year
20
Q
When does separation anxiety occur?
A
1 year
21
Q
When can a child walk alone?
A
18 months
22
Q
When can a child jump with both feet?
A
18 months
23
Q
When can a child throw a ball?
A
18 months
24
Q
When can a child use a spoon?
A
18 months
25
When can a child build a tower of 3-4 cubes?
18 months
26
When does a child show rapproachement?
18 months
27
When can a child run?
2 years
28
When can a child make sentences?
2 years
29
When does a child show parallel play?
2 years
30
When is a child dry by day?
2 years
31
When can a child speak in sentences?
3 years
32
When does a child have imaginary companions?
3 years
33
When does a child show cooperative play?
3 months
34
When does a child go upstairs 1 foot per step and down 2 feet?
3 years
35
When can a child copy a circle?
3 years
36
When can a child draw a man?
3 years
37
When can a child build a tower of 9 cubes?
3 years
38
When can a child copy a cross?
4 years
39
When can a child skip?
4 years
40
When is a child toilet trained?
4 years
41
When can a child copy a triangle?
5 years
42
When can a child hop?
5 years
43
When can a child dress and undress alone?
5 years
44
When is a child fluent with grammer?
5 years
45
When can a child copy a diamond?
6 years
46
When can a child count number of fingers?
6 years
47
What are motor tasks at 3 months?
Hold head up
| Grasp reflex disappears
48
Motor tasks at 5 months?
Hand to hand transfer
Rolling over
Palmar grasp
49
When can a child roll over?
6 months
50
Motor tasks at 9-10 months?
Crawls
Sits unsupported
Picks up objects with pincer grasp
51
Social development at 9 months?
Stranger anxiety followed by object permanence
52
Language development at 1 year?
One or two words
53
Motor tasks at 18 months?
```
Walks alone
Holds rails and climbs
Jumps with both feet
Builds tower of 3-4 cubes
Uses spoon
```
54
Social development at 2 years
Parallel play
| Dry by day
55
Language development at 3 years
Speaks in sentences
56
Key concepts of Temperament theory
Temperaments are biologically based traits - inhibited or uninhibited. Temperament elicits environmental response that perpetuates pattern of behaviour.
57
Key concepts of PIaget's Organismic stage theory
Development occurs in stages with transition occurring due to interaction between child and environment.
58
Key concepts of Freud's psychosexual stage theory
Stage-specific behaviours are driven by inner conflicts resulting in anxiety signals.
Successful resolution of conflicts aid in progressive maturation.
59
Who created the psychosocial stage theory of development?
Erikson
60
Key concepts of Psychosocial stage theory?
Psychosocial developmental stages are characterized by conflicts but resolution is not mandatory for further development.
61
Key concepts of Vygotsky's collaborative learning theory?
Development is not private - child acts as an apprentice in social surroundings. Parents/teachers carry out scaffolding to introduce familiarity for child to develop own expertise.
62
What is collaborative learning in the collaborative learning theory?
Parents and teachers carry out role of scaffolding to introduce familiarity for child to develop its own expertise.
63
What is zone of proximal development in collaborative learning theory?
Functions not yet fully achieved but in process of pipeline whose development is aided by scaffolding.
64
Key concepts of Maturational growth theory (Gesell)?
Maturation of nervous system as principal driver of various aspects of human behaviour.
65
Freuds psychosexual stages
```
Oral
Anal
Phallic/oedipal
Latency
Genital
```
66
When does oral stage occur in Freuds theory?
0-1.5 years
67
When does anal stage occur in Freuds theory?
1.5-3 years
68
When does phallic/oedipal stage occur in Freuds theory?
3-5 years
69
When does latency stage occur in Freuds theory?
5-11
70
When does genital occur in Freuds theory?
Puberty onwards
71
When happens in oral stage in Freuds theory?
Drive discharge via sucking - oral erotogenic zone.
72
What occurs in early stages of oral stage?
Oral erotism (sucking, licking).
73
What occurs in late stages or oral stage?
Oral sadism - biting, chewing
74
What develops at oral stage?
Ego
75
What happens in Anal stage?
Anal erotogenic zone - drive discharge via sphincter behaviour.
76
Three behaviours in anal stage
Anal erotism
Anal sadism
Anal fixation
77
What occurs in anal erotism?
Sexual pleasure in anal functioning
78
What occurs in anal sadism?
Aggressive wishes linked to fecal expulsion
79
What occurs in anal fixation?
OCD like pattern, ambivalence and sadomasochistic tendencies.
80
What occurs in phallic/oedipal stage?
Genitals are organs of interest - masturbation-like activity.
81
What is the oedipus complex?
Wish to have libidinal relationship with opposite sex, leading to fear of retaliation from rival parent.
82
What is the electra complex?
Oedipal complex in girls.
83
What is fear of retaliation in both boys and girls?
Boys - castration anxiety
| Girls - loss of mothers love
84
What is the electra complex?
Penis envy, wish to have penis accompanied by blaming mother for absence of mother.
Wish to displace mother as object of fathers love and bear his baby.
85
What occurs at resolution of Oedipus/electra complex?
Identification with aggressor
| Super-ego develops from introjection of parental values
86
What occurs during latency period?
Socialization
Interest in peers
Sexual energy sublimated towards school work
87
What occurs during genital period?
Biological maturation
| Genital sexuality is born
88
What is a critical period in development?
Time when individual is acutely sensitive to effects of external influences.
89
Types of stress responses in young children
Positive
Tolerable
Toxic
90
What is the positive stress response in children?
Brief, mild response
Moderated by availability of carer
Growth-opportunity
91
What is tolerable stress response in children?
Exposure to non-normative experience e.g. death in family.
92
What is toxic stress response in children?
Strong, frequent or prolonged activation of body's stress response in absence of protection from adults.
Disrupts brain circuitry
93
What is monotropy in Bowlbys theory?
Strong, innate tendency to attach to one adult gemale
94
When does attachment behaviour peak?
12-18 months
95
Phases of attachment according to Bowlby
Pre-attaching
Indiscriminate attachment
Clearcut attachment
>25 months - mother is independent
96
When does preattachment phase occur?
Birth to 8-12 weeks
97
When does indiscriminate attachment occur?
8-12 weeks to 6 months
98
What happens during indiscriminate attachment phase?
Baby allows strangers to handle, infants become attached to one or more person in environment
99
When does clear-cut attachment occur?
6-24 months
100
What occurs during clear-cut attachment?
Preferential attachment, seperation anxiety, object permanence, stranger anxiety.
101
Who conducted the attachment experiments on rhesus monkeys?
Harlow
102
What led to the A-C categories of babies attachments?
Ainsworth's experiments
103
Describe Type A attachment
```
Anxious avoidant.
15%
Indifferent attitude to mother leaving/entering.
Distressed when alone.
Stranger can comfort child.
```
104
Which attachment type is seen in bullying behaviour?
Type A
105
Describe Type B attachment
70%
Distressed when mother leaves.
Comforted by mother, not by stranger.
106
Describe Type C attachment
Anxious resistant.
15%
High level of distress, especially when mother leaves. Not comforted by mother and resistant to stranger.
107
Which attachment pattern is greater in the West?
Type A
108
What is Type D attachment?
Disorganised
Maltreated/maternally deprived
Child is insecure, frightened of mother.
109
Who devised the Adult attachment interview?
Main
110
What are the four patterns noted from the Adult attachment interview?
Secure autonomous
Dismissing of experiences
Entangled
Unresolved disorganised
111
What is the secure autonomus behaviour in AAI?
Those with secure attachment provide coherent answers and talk freely re negative experiences in childhood - Type B.
112
What is the dismissing of experiences in AAI?
Those who had Type A minimise their experiences.
113
What is Entangled in AAI?
Those who were Type C use multiple emotionally laden responses and ramble excessively.
114
What is anaclitic depression?
Short period of separation from primary caregiver (e.g. hospitalisation) results in loss of loved one.
115
Who created the term anaclitic depression?
Spitz
116
Who created seperation-individuation theory?
Margaret Mahler
117
What are Mahler's stages?
Normal Autism (0-2 months)
Symbiosis (2-5 months)
Separation - individuation
118
What occurs during normal autism?
Child sends time asleep
119
What happens during symbiosis?
Inner and outer world studied via senses but perceives mother and self as one.
120
What are the sub-phases of seperation-individuation phase?
Differentiation (5-10m)
Practicing (10-18m)
Rapprochment (18-24m)
Object constancy (2-5 years)
121
What happens during differentiation?
Appreciates difference between mother and self
122
What happens during practicing phase?
Increase in interest on environment
123
What happens during Rapproachment phase?
Alternating drives to be dependent and autonomous.
124
What happens during object constancy phase?
Understand mother will not be lost if away.
125
Who distinguished deprivation from privation?
Rutter
126
Describe deprivation
Attachment formed but lost temporarily.
If for short time then detachment phases seen - 8m- 3 years.
If prolonged - seperation anxiety.
127
Describe seperation anxiety
Clingy behaviour
Psychosomatic complaints
Aggression
128
What is privation?
Non-formation of attachment.
| Affectionless psychopathy.
129
Behaviours seen in privation
Attention seeking
Lack of guilt
Antisocial behaviour
130
What is imprinting?
During critical phase (early stages of development), young animal is sensitive to certain stimuli that provoke a specific behaviour.
131
What are innate releasing mechanisms?
Sensory mechanism selectively responsive to specific external stimulus and responsible for triggering stereotyped motor response.
132
What is fixed action pattern?
Inherent pattern of behaviour initiated by specific stimuli.
133
What does object relations theory state?
Ego exists only in relation to other objects.
134
People associated with Object relations theory?
```
Melanie Klein
Fairbairn
Kernberg
Guntrip
WInnicott
Balint
```
135
What is Kleinian theory?
Maintained that oedipal development occurred earlier than Freud stated
Infant possessed instinctual knowledge of body
Weaning symbolically equivalent to castration
136
What are Kleinian defenses?
```
Splitting
Introjection
Projective identification
Denial
Omnipotence
Grandiosity
```
137
What was the major technique employed via Kleinian theory?
Play interpretation
138
What were Winnicott's concepts?
Childrens psychological development occurs in transitional zone - between reality and fantasy.
Transitional object = toy that helps with transition. Buffer against loss.
Good enough mother = mother need not be perfect but provide growth sustaining environment
139
What is 'holding' in Winnicott's concept?
Idea of mother not having to be perfect but providing growth sustaining environment
140
What is theory of multiple self-organization re Winnicott's concept?
Parental control can lead to development of a false self-different from real self
141
Who described the four types of parenting?
Maccoby and Martin
142
What are the four types of parenting?
Authoritative/Propagative
Authoritarian/Totalitarian
Indulgent (permissive)
Neglectful
143
What is the Authoritative/propagative parent?
Responsive
| Demanding
144
What is the Authoritatian/Totalitarian parent?
Demanding
Unresponsive
Punishment heavy - follow rules w/o explanation.
145
What is indulgent parenting?
Responsive
Undemanding
Permissible + lenient. try to be friends with child.
146
What happens to adults who had indulgent parenting?
Pay less attention to avoiding behaviours, causing aggression in others.
147
Common type of parenting in first-borns
More parental time
Higher IQ
More authoritarian + conformist
148
Common type of parenting in middle-born
Least attention
| Strong peer relationships
149
Common type of parenting in last-born
Most attention
Independent
Rebellious
150
What was the landmark study that formed childhood predictors of delinquency?
Cambridge study of Delinquent development by Farrington et al.
151
Behaviours shown after parental loss in 3-6 year olds
Assume responsibility for separation
152
Behaviours shown in 7-12 year olds after parental separation
Decline in school performance
153
Behaviours shown in adolescence after parental separation
Angry
Critical of parents
Spend time away from home
154
What is ex-institutional syndrome?
Behaviour shown in those adopted:
relate better to adults than to peers
Less likely to have a special friend
Less likely to be selective in choosing friends
Turned to peers less often for emotional support
155
Most stable temperaments in babies?
Negative emotionalist
| Reaction to new situations
156
What is the key study on childhood temperament?
New York Longitudinal study by Thomas and Chess - 30 year study of 138 children
157
What behavioural styles were found from the New York Longitudinal study?
Easy - adapts well, active (40%)
Difficult - uncomfortable with new experiences, react intensely to stimuli (10%)
Slow to warm up - poor adaptation to change, responds at low intensity (15%)
Ungrouped - 35%
158
What is behavioural inhibition a precursor to?
Neurotic disorders
159
What is neophobia?
Form of inhibition in which child appears frozen and withdrawn in novel situations
160
What is Goodness of fit?
Reciprocal relationship between baby's temperament and its social environment, resulting in positive development.
161
Who created the EAS model?
Buss and Plomin, 1984
162
What is the EAS model?
Emotionality
Activity
Sociability
Temperament as inherited traits exihibted early in live.
163
According to Eriskon's model, what happens if a child is unable to build self-esteem?
Sense of shame
164
When do we develop a sense of industry?
6-12 years of age - capable of learning
165
What occurs during identity vs role confusion?
12-18 years
Development depends on what we do. Children explore independence, form sense of self.
Experiment with different social roles.
166
What is generativity according to Eriksons model?
Middle aged adult seeks satisfaction through productivity in career and family/social network.
167
What is integrity in Eriksons model?
Older adult reviews life accomplishments and prepares for end of life by pursuing lifelong interests.
168
Stages of Eriksons model of development
```
Basic trust vs basic mistrust - birth to 18 months
Autonomy vs shame - 18 months to 3 years
Initiative vs guilt - 3 to 6 years
Industry vs inferiority - 6 to 12 years
Identity vs role confusion - adolescence
Intimacy vs isolation - young adult
Generativity vs stagnation - middle adult
Ego integrity vs despair - late adult
```
169
What is schema as per Piaget?
Basic building block/unit of intelligent behaviour.
| Schema consist of organised past experiences to understand future experiences.
170
What is adaptation as per Piaget?
Process of fitting schemas to environmental information via;
| assimilation.
171
How can schemas adapt?
Assimilation - new information is incorporated into existing schema.
Accommodation - schema is restructured to accommodate new information.
172
Stages of PIaget's model of development
Sensorimotor
Pre-operational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
173
What happens during the sensorimotor stage?
Language develops, thought dominates action.
Can mimic one object with another.
Remembers an act, replays later.
Primitive self recognition.
Understands object can disappear from perception and still exist.
174
What occurs during pre-operational stage?
Objects referred to by function rather than appearance.
Inanimate objects treated as living.
Von Damarus law/transductive reasoning - cats _ dogs have 4 legs so are same.
Lack of seriation (ability to categorise based on dimensional variation), conservation (ability to perceive quantity is unchanged if material is in different shape/structure), reversibility (ability to mentally calculate and understand what is done can be undone w/o loss of material).
Restricted ability of viewing world from single PoV.
Signifiers are symbols/signs that represent something else.
Link neighbouring objects/events based on common instances e.g. red sphere with red square.
175
What happens during concrete operational stage?
Conservation of liquid at 6 years.
| Conservation of length, count, weight and volume (11-12 years)
176
What occurs during formal operational stage?
>11 years
Manipulation of ideas and propositions.
Hypothetico-deductive reasoning develops after 12 years of age.
177
How many phonemes/speech sounds in English?
46
178
What is the meaningful part of language called?
Morpheme
179
In whom is language slower to develop?
```
Boys
Twins
Large families
Social classes 4-5
Those that lack speech stimulation (deaf, neglected children)
```
180
Stages of language development
Pre-linguistic (0-12m)
One word (12-18m)
Two word sentences/stage 1 grammar (18-30m)
Stage 2 grammar (>30m)
181
What happens in pre-linguistic state?
Crying.
1m: distinguish speech sounds
6w: cooing
6m: babbling
182
What happens in one word stage?
Jargon/babbling up to 18m.
Earliest words are context bound.
Holophrases (one-word substitutes for whole phrases)
183
What happens at stage 1 grammar?
Telegraphic speech - meaningful words used w/o connecting words.
184
What happens at stage 2 grammar?
Length of utterances increases due to function words.
185
What is Noam Chomsky's theory on language?
Children are born with innate language acquisition device.
Transformational grammar is important in understanding language development.
Language has surface structure where syntax is accurate + actual words used, and deep structure where most semantic sense is made w/o similar syntactical rules.
Children are born with ability to decipher transformational grammar of deep to surface structure conversion.
186
What is social interaction view of language?
Adults act as language acquisition support system.
187
What is the elaborate language code?
Longer, complex sentences that are context-independent. allows for expression of abstract thought.
188
What is restricted language code?
Short, incomplete sentences, usually context-dependent.
189
What is social competence?
Development of ability to interact with others + perception of own behaviour
190
Approaches to social competence
Peer regard - based on popularity with beers
Social skills - behaviours demonstrating social skills determine social competence
Relationship - competence based on ability to form relationships
Functional - context-specific, concerned with identification of social tasks
191
What was PIaget's theory re morality in children?
Older children have social perspective.
192
Piagets moral development theory for 5-9 year olds
```
Unilateral respect for external law
External responsibility for crime
Moral realism
Imminent justice
Heteronomous morality - subject to rules written by others
```
193
Piaget's moral development theory for children older than 10 years of age
Mutual respect for the self-invented law
Internal responsibility for crime
Moral relativism
Autonomous morality - rules can be self-made
194
What is Kohlberg's theory of moral development based on?
Reasons for making a judgement in a hypothetical experiment (Heinz Dilemma) studied in children.
195
Levels of Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Pre-conventional (7-12 years to middle childhood)
Conventional (13-16)
Postconventional (16-20)
196
What happens in Kohlberg's pre-conventional morality stage?
Children decide right or wrong based on consequences.
Orientated to obedience - obide by rules to avoid punishment
Reward orientated.
197
What happens during conventional morality stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
Children believe social rules and expectation on others determine behaviour.
Concordance orientation - what the majority thinks is right. Conforms to avoid disapproval.
Authority orientation - upholds rules to avoid feelings of guilt and authorities.
198
What happens in postconventional morality stage in Kohlberg's theory of moral development?
What is right is based on individual's understanding of universal ethical principles.
Legalistic orientation - actions guided by principles agreed in group or essential to public welfare.
Universal ethics - actions guided by self-chosen ethics.
199
Criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development
Androcentric
| Eurocentric
200
Describe Eisenberg's stages re moral development theory
Based on prosocial reasoning where helping or altruistic behaviour was studied.
201
How do infants show emotional regulation?
Gaze aversion
| Vocalising
202
At what age can children unconsciously regulate their emotion?
1 year
203
What is an important study in development of emotional intelligence?
Development of Toddlers Study - Cole et al.
204
Observations from Development of Toddlers study?
```
18-24m:
quick to express anger
slow to distract selves
36m:
quicker to distract
anger briefer
48m:
quickly distract selves
verbally bid to mother
```
205
At what age does fear of animals occur
3 years of age
206
At what age does fear of dark occur
4-5 years of age
207
At what age do children show awareness of their body
3-6 years
208
What is the Band Aid phase?
3-6 years - when children are aware of their body and show preoccupation with illness or injury.
209
When does gender identity develop?
3-4 years of age
210
What is gender typing?
Process where an individual acquires a sense of gender-related traits within society they are born.
211
What is cognitive developmental theory re gender?
```
Gender labelling (age 3): child understands he/she is male or female
Gender stability (4-5): recognise gender is life-long
Gender constancy (6-7): understand gender is immutable.
```
212
What does Gender Schema Processing theory state?
Gender identity provides children the motivation to assume sex-typed behaviour.
213
Sexual behaviours shown in 4-6 year olds
Masturbating in front of others
Kissing/holding hands
Talking about genitals w/o understanding meaning
Exploring private parts with peers
214
Sexual behaviours in 7-12 year olds
Playing courtship games
Viewing sexual content in media
Reluctant to discuss sexual issues with adults
Sexually attracted to peers
215
What is adolescence called in Piaget's theory?
Formal operation
216
What is adolescence called in Freud's theory?
Genital stage
217
What is adolescence called in Erikson's theory?
Identity vs role confusion
218
What is affective instability?
Oscillation between behavioural and affective excess and scarcity during adolescence induced by endocrine change, sexual maturity and instability of ego defenses.
219
What is adolescent turmoil?
Described by Erikson as temporary maladaptive state due to identity diffusion.
220
What is Marcia's theory on adolescence?
Mature self-identity is possible only if an individual experiences several crises, finally arriving at a stage of commitment.
221
What are the four degrees of commitment as per Marcia's theory?
Identity achievement
Moratorium
Foreclosure
Role confusion
222
What is identity achievement according to Marcia?
Most mature achievement - most desirable.
| High degree of commitment, high degree of crises.
223
What is foreclosure according to Marcia?
Avoids anxiety by prematurely commiting to safe and conventional parental and societal goals.
High degree of commitment.
Low degree of crises.
224
What is Moratorium as per Marcia?
Experiences height of crises but postpones decisions until alternative identities tried.
Low degree of commitment.
High degree of crises.
225
What is role confusion re Marcia?
Unresolved state of adolescence.
Low degree of commitment.
Low degree of crises.
226
Precocious puberty age?
Boys - <9
| Girls - <8
227
What are Jane Loevinger's 9 states of ego?
Presocial - baby unable to differentiate from world
Impulsive - child concerned with bodily impulses
Self-protective - child has notion of blame but externalises
Conformist - conform to socially approved codes
Self-aware - increased self-criticism, interest in interpersonal relations
Conscientious - internalisation of rules complete, goals acknowledged, new responsibility
Individualistic - respect for individuality
Autonomous - able to conceptually integrate ideas
Integrated - learning understood as unavoidable.
228
What is equity theory?
That individuals consider cost-benefit ratio for each person in relationship.
229
What is reinforcement theory?
Individuals choose partners on basis of reinforcement of attraction with rewards.
230
When is midlife transition?
40-45 years of ago.
231
Who coined the term Midlife Crisis?
Elliot Jacques
232
What is downshifting?
Voluntarily opting out of a pressurized career for more fulfilling life.
233
Who did classic work on grief?
Erich Lindemann - studied 101 bereaved people.
234
Patterns of Grief as per Lindemann
After unexpected death there is shock (10-14 days)
sadness
Anger - protest
Grief resolved after a year
235
Stages of Bereavement as per Parkes
```
Alarm
Numbness
Pining for deceased
Depression
Reorganisation
```
236
How can psychological stress during pregnancy affect the fetus?
Release of corticotrophin releasing hormone from placenta increases with stress - increased risk of intrauterine infection, preterm labour and low birth weight.
237
Factors that predict acute maternal psychological distress?
Single parent
Multiparity
Previous traumatic birth
238
What cognitive function is most susceptible to decline with age?
Working memory
Incidental memory
Attention
239
Effect of ageing on body physiology
Bone loss = reduction in mechanical strength
| Deterioration of collagen fibres = loss of elasticity in skin
240
Theories of role change in old age
Social disengagement
Social reengagement
Social exchange
Socio-emotional selectivity
241
What does social disengagement theory say about age?
Mutual withdrawl of social and individual, increased individuality and shrinking life space are inevitable moves towards death.
242
What does social reengagement theory say re age?
Ageist society reduces social interaction that older adults can have - withdrawl is forced.
243
What does social exchange theory say re age?
Age robs people of ability to engage in reciprocal roles; retirement is a social contract wherein productivity is exchanged for increased leisure and reduced responsibilities.
244
What does socio-emotional selectivity theory say re age?
Wise investment of social energy in old age is to limit social interaction to those familiar.
245
Phases of retirement?
Pre-retirement - anxiety with retirement of friends/colleagues
Honeymoon - increased freedom
Disenchantment - slowing down, feels let down
Reorientation - explores new avenues, realistic
Stability - makes choises
Termination - frailty, death
246
What was Waddington's concept of canalization?
Certain behaviour traits are strongly genetically determined (canalized) so development follows these behaviours.
Others are poorly canalized so environmental factors influence these traits.
247
What was Gottesmans theory re range of reactions?
Genetic make-up of child does not shape any behaviour in its entirety - instead genes only set limits within which individual variability is shapred by environment.
248
What is Scarr & McCartney's concept of niche-picking?
Genetic make-up of child contributes to propensities towards certain skills and abilities; children then seek activities that are compatible with their genes.
249
What are the three G-E interactions?
Passive
Evocative
Active
250
What is the Passive G-E interaction?
Child's environment is influenced in part by parental genes which are correlated with child's genes.
Shows decreasing influence over development.
251
What is evocative G-E interaction?
Child's environment is influenced partly by genetically shaped behaviour.
Stable influence over development.
252
What is active ge-interaction?
Child's environment is influenced in part by an active choice of the child to complement genetically shaped interests.
Increasing influence with development.
253
When is a neural tube seen?
2-3 weeks
254
What is formed by week 5 in vitro?
Ectodermal tissue differentiates to precursors of different brain regions.
255
What occurs in vitro at week 8?
Birth neurons from stem cells at ventricular proliferative zone
256
When does neuronal migration occur?
Week 12-20
257
When does migration of neurons occur?
Week 17
258
How does migration of neurons occur?
Transient layer of cortical subplate of migrating neurons is visible beneath cortex.
20w: subplate withers away
24-28w: replaced by more permanent cortical sheet
259
When does cortical folding pattern (sulci and gyri) become visible?
20w on fetal MRI
260
When is neuronal count in human brain at its peak?
28th week in vitro - 40% greater than in adult
261
What happens at 28w in vitro?
Dendritic formation accelerates
Disappearance of proliferative zone and cortical subplate
Increase in cortical thickness on fetal MRI
262
When does synaptogenesis peak?
34th week in vitro
263
When does net number of synapses decrease?
Puberty
264
How can one visualise synaptic decrease/pruning?
- progressive cortical thinning of frontal and parietal cortices in MRI
- glucose metabolism measured via PEt scan
265
When does myelination occur?
Last trimester:
myelination of visual cortical white matter
9m postnatal:
myelination of frontal cortex (posterior to anterior maturation starting with sensory then motor pathway, finally higher-order assocation areas).
266
How does white matter volume increase?
Linearly up to 20 years of age in all brain regions
267
How does gray matter volume increase?
Frontal, paretial and temporal gray matter volume increases before adolescence
Frontoparietal peak at 12 years
Temporal peak at 16 years
Universal reduction thereafter
268
How does cortical thickness progress with age?
Decreases with age in back-to-front progression:
starts at sensorimotor areas, progresses to dorsal parietal,
superior temporal
Dorsolateral preofrontal cortices.
269
How does cortical thinning occur?
Synaptic pruning
| Myelination
270
What is diffusion tensor imaging?
Technique used to study integrity of white matter tracts
271
What do neuroimaging in children show re white matter?
White matter pathways increase, particularly in prefrontal regions and basal ganglia
272
What is Magnestic resonance spectroscopic?
Measures n-acetyl-aspartate - an indicator of neuronal integrity
273
What do magnetic resonance spectrosopic studies show?
Low levels at birth, rapid increase during first 2 years of life - may repesent synaptogenesis during childhood
274
What do fMri studies show re ageing and the brain?
Age-related increases in activation of left frontal and temporal cortices (language areas), hence expansion of reading and phonological skills during childhood
275
At what month can a baby differentiate faces?
1 month
276
At what month does a child develop colour vision?
4 months
277
At what age can children read time to the hour?
4-5 years
278
At what age can children read time to the half hour?
5-6 years
279
At what age does ego-centrism occur?
2-7 years
280
What is ego-centrism?
Ability to only perceive the world from ones own POV
281
What task demonstrates ego-centrism in children?
Mountain task
282
At what age does rule-governed play occur?
5 years
283
At what age does co-operative play occur?
3 years
284
When does one word stage occur?
1 year
285
When does two word stage occur?
2 years
286
When do basic grammatical sentences form?
3 years
287
When does a child have adult speech?
5 years
288
When does object permanence occur?
9 months
289
When is the superego developed?
Latency stage
290
When does theory of mind occur?
18 months
291
Age of sensorimotor stage of Piaget?
Birth to 24 months
292
Goal of Sensorimotor stage?
Object Permanence
293
Age of Pre-operational stage of Piaget?
2-7 years
294
Goal of Pre-operational stage?
Symbolic thought
295
Age of Concrete stage?
7-11 years
296
Goal of concrete stage?
Operational thought
297
Age of formal stage of Piaget?
Adolescence to adulthood
298
Goal of formal stage?
Abstract thought
