Human Development Flashcards
What is developmental psychology?
The study of how behaviour changes over one’s lifespan
What is the post hoc fallacy?
A logical error where one assumes that A causes B because A came before B.
What do bidirectional influences suggest?
Development and experiences influence each other, considered a “two-way street”
What does a cross-sectional design examine and compare?
People of different ages at a single point in time
What does a longitudinal design examine?
The development of the same group of people over time
What is an advantage and a disadvantage of a cross-sectional design?
Advantage: quick, cheap, and easy
Disadvantage: cohort effects - people who lived in different time periods may affect data
What is an advantage and a disadvantage of a longitudinal design?
Advantage: establishes patterns of development
Disadvantage: attrition - participants can drop out of the study before completion and can affect results systematically
Why is the nature-nurture debate still relevant?
Both are important in shaping development and it isn’t “either-or”
What are the 3 Nature-Nurture intersections?
- Gene-environment interactions - the impact of genes on behaviour is dependent on the environment where it develops
- Nature via nurture - genetic predispositions can drive us to search for and create our environments
- Gene expression - genes activate or deactivate depending on environmental experiences throughout development
What is a zygote
A sperm cell that fertilizes an egg
When do the most dramatic changes in prenatal development occur?
The earliest stages of pregnancy, aka conception
After conception, what are the 3 next stages of prenatal development?
- Germinal stage
- Embryonic stage
- Fetal stage
What happens in the germinal stage of prenatal development?
The zygote divides to form blastocyst, cells continue to divide for the next 10-ish days
What happens in the embryonic stage of prenatal development?
Cells begin to assume different functions and form into limbs, facial features, and major organs (e.g. brain & heart)
What happens in the fetal stage of development?
Major organs are established, heart begins beating, fetus continues physical maturation
Between what period of time do neurons grow at an incredible rate?
Day 18 - 6th month
Up to how many neurons per minute do they proliferate?
250,000
What are teratogens?
Environmental factors that can exert a negative impact on prenatal development
What are some examples of teratogens?
Smoking, drugs, chicken pox, x-rays, anxiety, depression
What are 2 potential obstacles to development besides teratogens?
- Genetic disruptions, can be from disorders or errors in cell division
- Prematurity, being born before 36 weeks
What are motor behaviours?
Bodily motions that occur as a result of self-initiated force that moves bones and muscles
We are born with a large set of reflexes, which include sucking and rooting reflexes. What is this also known as?
Automatic motor behaviours
What is motor development influenced by?
Physical maturity and cultural and parenting practices
In which part of adolescence plays a large role in hormonal release of estrogens and androgens?
Puberty
What are the 3 ways that the theories of cognitive development can differ?
- Stage-like vs. gradual changes in understanding
- Domain-general vs. domain-specific
- Principal source of learning
Who presented the first complete account of cognitive development?
Jean Piaget
What did Piaget’s theory of cognitive development suggest?
Children use assimilation to acquire knowledge within a stage, and accommodation forces change between stages when assimilation cannot acquire new information
What are the 4 stages outlined in Piaget’s cognitive development theory?
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational stage
- Concrete operations
- Formal operations
At what age and what happens in the sensorimotor stage? (Piaget)
Birth-2 yrs.
Children only know what they see, have no object permanence and deferred immitation
At what age and what happens in the preoperational stage? (Piaget)
2-7 yrs.
Has object permanence but egocentric, doesn’t see others’ perspective
At what age and what happens in the concrete operational stage? (Piaget)
7-11 yrs.
Can perform mental operations from actual events and conservation tasks, but can’t perform mental operations and need physical experience
At what age and what happens in the formal operations stage? (Piaget)
11 yrs. to adulthood
Ability to perform hypothetical reasoning and using logic in new situations
What are some pros of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Still influential to this day, helped change how we think about cognitive development (e.g. children and adults think differently, learning is active)
What are some cons of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?
Development is more continuous and less general, underestimated children’s competence, culturally biased
What did Lev Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development focus on?
Social influences, scaffolding (parents structure environments for learning before slowly removing it), zone of proximal development for learning
Which lobes in the brain don’t fully mature until late adolescence or early adulthood?
Frontal lobes, responsible for planning, decision making, impulse control
At what age does stranger anxiety start and when does it peak?
Starts at 8-9 months, peaks at 12-15 months
What are the 3 major styles of temperament?
- Easy (40%)
- Difficult (10%)
- Slow-to-warm up (15%)
What is attachment?
An emotional connection we share with those to whom we feel closest
What are the 4 attachment styles?
- Secure attachment (60%)
- Insecure-avoidant attachment (15-20%)
- Insecure-anxious attachment (15-20%)
- Disorganized attachment (5-10%)
What are the 4 styles of parenting?
- Permissive - lenient, little discipline, very affectionate
- Authoritarian - very strict, punishing, little affection
- Authoritative - supportive, but set clear and firm limits
- Uninvolved - neglectful and ignoring
What matters most when it comes to parenting styles?
Whether or not a parent is toxic or a child is genetically predisposed towards impulsivity or violent behaviour
What are some examples of parenting issues?
- Influence of peers vs. parents on social development
- Fathers differ from mothers in parenting style (more of a playmate as less time is spent with babies)
About how much difference is there from opposite-sex from same-sex couples in childhood development?
No clear difference
What is the main challenge adolescents face when developing?
Identity - who they are, their goals and priorities
What did Erikson develop and propose to explain identity development?
8 Virtues Gathered by Adulthood
What are the 8 virtues gathered by adulthood that Erikson outlines and when do they take form?
- Hope (trust vs. mistrust) - infancy
- Determination/Will (autonomy vs. doubt) - early childhood
- Purpose (initiation vs. guilt) - play age
- Competence (industry vs. inferiority) - school age
- Fidelity (identity vs. role confusion) - teens
- Love (intimacy vs. isolation) - young adulthood
- Care (generativity vs. stagnation) - adulthood
- Wisdom (ego integrity vs. despair) - old age
What is the difference between sex and gender?
Sex - biological status
Gender - psychological characteristics
How do biological factors influence gender differences?
Which toys are played with, sex segregation during play
How do social influences play a role in gender development?
Encouraging and expecting certain types of behaviour
What did Kohlberg’s Moral Development focus on?
Used several moral problems to see what principles people used to solve them
What are the 3 major stages of Kohlber’s Moral Development?
