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HSF > HSF 3 - Unit 2 Histology: Endocrine Glands > Flashcards

HSF 3 - Unit 2 Histology: Endocrine Glands Flashcards

1
Q

how does the endocrine system communicate with other parts of the body?

A

via chemical messengers (hormones) that are secretory products of endocrine cells, which are carried via the bloodstream to the target tissue that contains receptors

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2
Q

what are endocrine organs composed of? type of cell, cell characteristics, and their origin?

A

secretory cells from epithelial origin, prominent nuclei and numerous organelles; lack ducts so secrete hormones into surrounding interstitial space

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3
Q

what is special about the blood supply of endocrine organs?

A

rich supply with fenestrated capillary network: good for absorbing and secreting hormones

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4
Q

what important function does the hypothalamus have?

A

coordinates endocrine functions of the body by being an intermediary between the ANS and endocrine system

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5
Q

what do most endocrine glands form and where are these found?

A

discreet organs, found in pancreas where the endocrine and exocrine tissue is intermixed

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6
Q

what is another name for the pituitary gland?

A

hypohpysis

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7
Q

where is the pituitary gland found and how big is it?

A

1 cm, lies beneath the 3rd ventricle of the brain within the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone

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8
Q

what controls secretions of the pituitary?

A

the hypothalamus

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9
Q

what is the blood supply of the pituitary? what does this allow?

A

complex: contains hypophyseal portal system, allows communication between hypothalamus and pituitary

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10
Q

what are the different kinds of hormones secreted by the pituitary gland?

A

trophic and direct acting

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11
Q

what are trophic hormones? which ones are they?

A

the target organ of the hormone is another endocrine gland, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH

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12
Q

what are direct-acting hormones? which ones are they?

A

the target organ is non-endocrine; GH, ADH, MSH, oxytocin, prolactin

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13
Q

what are the glands that are pituitary-dependent?

A

thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads

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14
Q

how is the pituitary divided?

A

into posterior and anterior portions functionally, anatomically, and embryologically

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15
Q

what kind of tissue is found in each division of the pituitary?

A

anterior: glandular epithelial tissue
posterior: neural secretory tissue

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16
Q

what is the anterior pituitary known as?

A

master gland = adenohypophysis = pars distalis = pars anterior

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17
Q

what is the embryological origin of the tissue of the anterior pituitary?

A

arises from evagination of the ectoderm from the oral cavity in the pharynx in the Rathke’s pouch region

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18
Q

what are the divisions of the developed Rathke’s pouch?

A 
pars distalis (bulk; secretes most hormones, some of each kind)
pars intermedia (between anterior and posterior pituitary)
pars tuberalis (stalk/infundibulum)
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19
Q

what does the pars intermedia do? what special feature can be found here?

A

secretes MSH and ACTH; cystic remnants of Rathke’s pouch

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20
Q

what hormones are secreted by the pars distalis?

A

GH and prolactin (direct-acting)

TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH (trophic)

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21
Q

how does the hypothalamus influence pituitary secretions?

A

controls via hypothalamic regulating factors (hormones); releasing and inhibitory factors

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22
Q

what are the different types of cells within the anterior pituitary?

A

2 kinds of secretory cells: chromophils (stain) and chromophobes (don’t stain)

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23
Q

how do chromophils stain?

A

acidophils (acidic dye and turn pink in H&E) and basophils (basic dye and turn pale blue-purple in H&E)

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24
Q

how do chromophobes stain? what do they represent?

A

don’t take up dye, clear on H&E and represent inactive cells

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25
Q

what are the different kinds of acidophils?

A

somatotrophs and mammotrophs

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26
Q

somatotrophs

A

make up 50% of cells, secrete GH

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27
Q

mammotrophs

A

= lactotrophs, make up 20% of cells, secrete prolactin

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28
Q

what are the different kinds of basophils?

A

thyrotrophs, gonadotrophs, corticotrophs

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29
Q

thyrotrophs

A

5% of cells, secrete TSH (Thyrotropin)

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30
Q

gonadotrophs

A

5% of cells, secrete FSH and LH

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31
Q

corticotrophs

A

20% of cells, secrete ACTH, MSH, and endorphins

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32
Q

what is another name for the posterior pituitary? where is it located?

A

neurohypophysis, pars nervosa; located ventral to the hypothalamus, connects with infundibulum which contains axons of neurosecretory origin that communicate with hypothalamus

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33
Q

what kind of tissue makes up the posterior pituitary?

A

nervous tissue from the floor of diencephalon (3rd ventricle), consists of pituicytes (support cells) and neurosecretory nerve axons

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34
Q

what do the axons of the posterior pituitary do?

A

store and release products from nerve cell bodies in the hypothalamus (neurosecretion)

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35
Q

what is neurosecretion regulated by?

A

hypothalamic hypophyseal feedback loop

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36
Q

what hormones are secreted by the posterior pituitary?

A

secreted by hypothalamus via posterior: oxytocin and ADH (vasopressin)

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37
Q

how are hormones stored in the posterior pituitary?

A

stored in neurosecretory granules in dilations of axons = Herring bodies

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38
Q

ADH

A

controls blood pressure by altering permeability of renal collecting tubes

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39
Q

what happens when you decrease ADH?

A

increase urine production as in diabetes indipidus

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40
Q

where is ADH synthesized?

A

by neuron cell bodies in supraoptic nucleus of hypothalamus

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41
Q

oxytocin

A

promotes smooth muscle contraction in uterus and breasts, especially during labor and lactation

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42
Q

where is oxytocin synthesized?

A

by neuron cell bodies in paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus

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43
Q

what is the shape, location, and embryological origin of the thyroid gland?

A

bilateral, lobulated endocrine gland on ventral neck, with right and left lobes connected by a narrow isthmus, embryologically derived from epithelial downgrowth of fetal tongue

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44
Q

what is the thyroid surrounded by?

A

loose CT capsule with a fine CT septa

45
Q

what is unique about the thyroid gland?

A

storage of large amounts of inactive hormone called thyroglobulin

46
Q

what are the characteristics of thyroglobulin? where is it stored?

A

eosinophilic glycoprotein; stored in extracellular follicles

47
Q

what are extracellular follicles?

A

structural units of gland, lined by simple cuboidal

48
Q

what is the extracellular follicles’ role in thyroid secretion of hormones?

A

concentrates iodine 30-40x blood levels and secrete it as thyroglobulin via the apical microvilli

49
Q

what does iodination do to hormones?

A

activates

50
Q

what are the active hormones of the thyroid?

A

T3 and T4

51
Q

T3

A

triiodothronine, more biologically active and potent form

52
Q

T4

A

tetraiodothyronine, gets deiodinated in the liver to make T3

53
Q

what do thyroid hormones do?

A

regulate BMR and growth and development of nervous system

54
Q

what happens if there is a thyroid deficiency during fetal development?

A

impairs neural development and myelination so causes physical stunting and mental retardation (cretinism)

55
Q

what are Ccells?

A

secondary secretory cells in the thyroid gland, also called parafollicular cells or clear cells

56
Q

where are Ccells and what do they do?

A

located at the periphery of follicles or scattered within CT, in lower vertebrates makes up a separate organ; secrete calcitonin

57
Q

what does calcitonin do and what is its secretion regulated by?

A

regulates blood Ca levels along with parathyroid hormone, decreased levels inhibit osteoclasts; synthesis, storage, and release of thyroid hormones under control of TSH from the anterior pituitary

58
Q

what are the different thyroid pathologies?

A

goiter, which can be caused by hyper and hypothyroidism

59
Q

hypothyroidism

A

autoimmune reaction, decreased size of the gland; can cause goiter by insufficient dietary intake of iodine, leading to decreased thyroid hormone production and possible hypertrophy with non-functional thyroglobulin

60
Q

hyperthyroidism

A

increase in size and number of follicle cells

61
Q

what is the parathyroid gland? where is it? what is its embryological origin?

A

small, oval endocrine glands that are associated with the thyroid on the posterior surface, 2 pairs (superior and inferior); 3rd and 4th branchial (pharyngeal) pouches

62
Q

what does the parathyroid gland do? what does this secretion stimulate?

A

secretes PTH, which regulates serum Ca and P, which are antagonists to calcitonin; works slower than calcitonin

63
Q

how does PTH change serum calcium?

A

increases by…

1) increasing osteoclast activity by inhibiting osteoblast activity
2) increasing renal tubular absorption of cain kidneys (and inhibiting absorption of P)
3) Ca absorption from gut via vitamin D

64
Q

what is PTH secretion stimulated by?

A

low blood calcium

65
Q

what can change the integrity of the parathyroid gland?

A

damage or removal causes hypoparathyroidism; hyperparathyroidism can cause excess PTH production

66
Q

what are the secretory cells of the parathyroid gland?

A

Chief cells and oxyphil cells

67
Q

chief cells

A

most abundant cells in parathyroid, secrete PTH, stain clear to light pink, with dark nuclei and moderate amount of cytoplasm

68
Q

oxyphil cells

A

larger and less numerous cells in the parathyroid, stain dark pink, more cytoplasm, occur in clusters, contain large numbers of mitochondria but have no secretory function; function is unknown

69
Q

what can happen to the parathyroid gland with age?

A

fatty infiltration

70
Q

where is the adrenal gland? what tissue surrounds it?

A

superior to kidneys, covered by a thin CT capsule

71
Q

what is the embryological origin of the adrenal cortex?

A

mesodermal

72
Q

what is the regulation of the adrenal cortex?

A

ACTH secreted by the anterior pituitary

73
Q

what are the functional classes of the adrenal gland hormones?

A

mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, sex hormones

74
Q

mineralocorticoids and an example

A

control electrolyte and fluid balance by regulating Na and K levels via Na pumps, especially in renal tubules, regulates BP via JGA; aldosterone

75
Q

glucocorticoids and an example

A

stimulate gluconeogenesis and glycogenolysis, which both increase blood glucose; also increases metabolism and breakdown of proteins, carbs, and lipids; cortisol

76
Q

sex hormones and an example

A

very small amount of adrenal hormones, supplement gonadal production; androgens

77
Q

what are the layers of the adrenal cortex superficial to deep?

A

zona glomerulosa, zona fasciculata, zona reticularis

78
Q

zona glomerulosa

A

about 15% of cortex, thin, dark-staining band that secretes mineralocorticoids

79
Q

zona fasciculata

A

about 80% of cortex, broad, light-staining band that contains spongiocytes, secretes glucocorticoids, which increases under stress and decreases immune response, small amounts of androgens secreted here as well

80
Q

zona reticularis

A

about 5% of cortex, think, dark-staining band that secretes small quantities of androgens and glucocorticoids

81
Q

what is Addison’s disease?

A

hypoadrenocorticism; failure of the adrenal cortex to produce hormones (mineralo/glucocorticoids) usually due to atrophy because of an autoimmune disease; results in decreased aldosterone leading to a decreased extracellular fluid and hyponatremia and hyperkalemia, causing mild acidosis which can lead to shock and death (addisonian crisis); a decreased cortisol level decreases blood glucose levels and tx of this condition is to administer mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids

82
Q

what is Cushing’s disease? what are the types and their different sx?

A

hyperadrenocorticism; primary and secondary;
1’: adrenal; due to general adrenal hyperplasia or functional tumor of adrenal cortex that results in excess cortisol secretion
2’: pituitary; due to increased ACTH from the anterior pituitary due to a tumor; increased ACTH leads to adrenal hyperplasia and increased cortisol; can also result from cortisol secreting tumor

83
Q

what is the embryological origin of adrenal medulla?

A

neuroectoderm

84
Q

what cells are in the adrenal medulla?

A

chromaffin cells: modified, post-ganglionic neuronal cells with secretory function that are epitheloid in apperance; and are controlled by preganglionic nerve fibers; secrete catecholamines (epi and norepi)

85
Q

where are catecholamines stored within the adrenal medulla?

A

cytoplasmic granules called dense core granules

86
Q

what effect does the release of catecholamines have?

A

systemic effect on adrenergic receptors especially on all types of muscle

87
Q

what does adrenaline promote?

A

glycogenolysis in liver as energy source and is responsible for the production of enkephalins

88
Q

what are enkephalins?

A

endogenous opioids responsible for pain relief

89
Q

what is pheochromocytoma?

A

a generally benign functional tumor of chromaffin cells, so sx usually due to increased epi and norepi secretion: hypertension, headache, cardiac arrythmias, chest pain, anxiety, panic attacks, nausea; tx is surgical removal of the tumor

90
Q

what are the types of cells in the pancreas? what makes up the majority?

A

exocrine and endocrine; acini: exocrine cells that secrete digestive products into the gut

91
Q

how do islets of langerhans form?

A

during development, endocrine cells migrate from the duct system and aggregate around capillaries of the pancreas; found distributed throughout the exocrine pancreatic tissue

92
Q

what types of cells are found within islets of langerhans? what are their relative concentrations?

A

alpha (15-20%), beta (70%), delta (5-10%)

93
Q

alpha cells of pancreas

A

secrete glucagon, which increases blood glucose by stimulating glucogenesis and glycogenolysis

94
Q

beta cells of pancreas

A

secrete insulin, which decreases blood glucose and stimulates intracellular glycogenesis

95
Q

delta cells of pancreas

A

secrete somatostatin, which inhibits both insulin and glucagon production

96
Q

what other kinds of endocrine cells are found in the pancreas and what do they secrete?

A

miscellaneous cells secrete VIP and PP (pancreatic polypeptide)

97
Q

what is pathology of the pancreas?

A

insulin deficiency or abnormality - Diabetes Mellitus: type I is juvenile onset and due to decreased insulin production
type II is adult onset and due to decrease in insulin receptors or decreased responsiveness

98
Q

how big is the pineal gland and where is it located?

A

6-8 mm long and is anterodorsal to the cerebellum

99
Q

what does the pineal gland develop from?

A

neuroectoderm as evagination of posterior portion of the 3rd ventricle, from roof of diencephalon

100
Q

what is the pineal gland’s job?

A

communicates with the hypothalamus and acts as a photoreceptor in lower vertebrates; translates light intensity and duration (photoperiod) into endocrine activity which is important in circadian rhythms and seasonal reproductive cycles

101
Q

what does the pineal gland secrete? what does this do?

A

melatonin; stimulates melanophores, chromatophores (pigment-containing cells), which change in color intensity with reproductive cycle, also has anti-gonadal effect which decreases sex activity; also serotonin which is a vasoconstrictor and neurotransmitter

102
Q

what does melatonin do?

A

decreases GNRH from the hypothalamus which decreases sex hormone from gonads

103
Q

what are the cell types in the pineal gland?

A

pinealocytes and neuroglial cells

104
Q

pinealocytes

A

pineal chief cells; most common, highly modified neurons that secrete melatonin and serotonin

105
Q

neuroglial cells

A

interstitial cells; support cells similar to astrocytes

106
Q

what can be seen in the pineal gland besides the 2 cell types?

A

corpora arenacea; brain sand which is calcified accretions of Ca and Mg phosphate in aging individuals

107
Q

what is the embryological origin of endocrine cells in the respiratory and GI systems?

A

most come from neural crest as highly modified neurons, others from endoderm

108
Q

what are endocrine cells in the respiratory and GI systems called? what do they secrete?

A

APUD; secrete peptide and amine hormones

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