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HSF > HSF 2 - Unit 2 Histology: Respiratory System > Flashcards

HSF 2 - Unit 2 Histology: Respiratory System Flashcards

1
Q

where does the respiratory tract originate embryologically?

A

outgrowth of GI tract

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2
Q

what is the respiratory system derived from? when and where does this happen?

A

larynotracheal groove, develops along ventral midline of posterior pharynx, 4th week of development

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3
Q

what happens after week 4 of development to the developing respiratory system?

A

develops into respiratory diverticulum, an outgrowth of esophagus; grows into and interacts with surrounding mesoderm

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4
Q

what are the primary functions of the respiratory system?

A

air conduction, filtration, and gas exchange

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5
Q

what are the secondary functions of the respiratory system?

A

olfaction (smell) in nasal cavity and phonation (vocalization-speech) from larynx (voicebox)

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6
Q

what are the divisions of respiration?

A

mechanical and cellular

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7
Q

what is mechanical respiration?

A

associated with lungs, functions in gas exchange (O2 and CO2)

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8
Q

what is cellular respiration?

A

O2 is carried to tissues for it, oxidative metabolism to be converted into ATP, energy

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9
Q

what is the diaphragm?

A

thin, dome-shaped muscle, separates thoracic cavity from abdominal cavity in mammals

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10
Q

what are the pleural cavities lined by?

A

simple, squamous to cuboidal mesothelium; overlays thin layer of CT containing elastic fibers; collectively referred to as pleura

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11
Q

which lining is parietal? which is visceral?

A

thoracic wall; outer surface of lung

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12
Q

what separates the visceral and parietal pleura?

A

pleural space, containing pleural fluid, acts as lubricant, decreased friction

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13
Q

what happens with a pneumothorax?

A

breach of the pleural space, causing the normally negative intrathoracic pressure to become positive so lung collapses; remains unilateral due to the mediastinum

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14
Q

what is the mediastinum?

A

loose CT layer, separating L and R hemithoraces

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15
Q

what is the route of airflow?

A

upper respiratory tract at nostrils (external nares) and opens into vestibule; then enters nasal cavity; then travels into paranasal sinuses and nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx, trachea, bronchus (1, 2, 3), bronchioles, terminal bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs/alveoli

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16
Q

what does the vestibule contain? what do these function as?

A

hairs, helps filter and trap particulate matter; sometimes called sinus hairs or vibrissae

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17
Q

what are vibrissae?

A

sinus hairs, meaning the hair follicle is surrounded by a blood-filled sinus, aka whiskers in dogs, cats, rodents

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18
Q

what is in the nasal cavity? what types of cells?

A

thin, scroll-shaped bones, nasal turbinates/conchae, lined with moist, pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium covered by mucus; also contains olfactory receptors

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19
Q

what are olfactory receptors?

A

bipolar neurons for sense of smell; synapse with the olfactory N (CN I)

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20
Q

what does olfactory epithelium contain? what are they?

A

small numbers of brush cells, columnar cells with apical microvilli; generalized sensory cells of olfactory and respiratory epithelia

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21
Q

what is the nasopharynx?

A

series of interconnected spaces that collectively filter, humidify, and warm inspired air along with the paranasal sinuses; connects to the middle ear via the auditory (Eustacian) tubes, allows equilibration of air pressure

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22
Q

what is the upper respiratory tract lined by? what supports it?

A

pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium with numerous goblet cells that secrete mucus (aka respiratory epithelium) supported by underlying lamina propria of loose CT; contains numerous glands, mostly sero-mucus

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23
Q

what is the mucociliary ladder?

A

cilia in the respiratory epithelium of trachea and bronchi synchronously beat in metachronal rhythm to move surface mucus towards the larynx at rate of about 1 cm/min

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24
Q

what triggers the sneeze reflex? cough reflex?

A

irritation to upper airways (nasal passages); irritation to lower airways (trachea and bronchi)

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25
Q

where does the lower respiratory tract begin?

A

larynx

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26
Q

where do the digestive tract and respiratory system intersect?

A

where the upper and lower respiratory tracts meet at the larynx

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27
Q

where is the opening of the esophagus?

A

directly behind the opening of the trachea

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28
Q

what does the epiglottis do?

A

protects trachea during swallowing; covers the opening of the larynx

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29
Q

how does choking occur?

A

if food enters the larynx or trachea, triggers the coughing reflex which can lead to choking

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30
Q

what cartilages make up the larynx?

A

3 single and 3 paired
single: thyroid, cricoid, epiglottic
paired: arytenoid, corniculate and cuneiform
each composed of either hyaline or elastic cartilage

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31
Q

what important structure is housed in the larynx?

A

both true and false vocal folds/chords

32
Q

where are the vocal chords? what do they do?

A

below glottis (dorsal opening of larynx), and covered by epiglottis; false are superior and lateral to true; phonation and protects lower respiratory tract from entry of foreign bodies

33
Q

what type of epithelium covers the false vocal chords?

A

typical respiratory epithelium with associated sero-mucus glands

34
Q

what kind of epithelium covers the epiglottis and true vocal chords?

A

stratified squamous, nonkeratinzed epithelium

35
Q

what is in the true vocal chords?

A

vocalis muscle and ligament

36
Q

where doe the larynx and epiglottis develop from?

A

4th and 6th pharyngeal arches

37
Q

what is the larynx innervated by?

A

branches of the vagus n.; portion derived from 6th arch innervated by recurrent laryngeal n.

38
Q

where is the trachea? what kind of epithelium does it have?

A

inferior to the larynx; respiratory epithelium with numerous goblet cells and seromucus glands

39
Q

what does the caudal opening of the trachea contain?

A

CT tissue membrane and smooth muscle, trachealis muscle

40
Q

what supports the trachea?

A

C-shaped hyaline cartilage, face caudally to facilitate swallowing

41
Q

what does the trachea divide into? how are they identified?

A

primary or mainstem bronchi, secondary lobar bronchi, tertiary or segmental bronchi; presence of supporting cartilage rings or plates and accompanying layer of smooth muscle with or without seromucus glands

42
Q

how do we prevent collapse during inspiration?

A

cartilage support in the larynx, trachea, and bronchi

43
Q

where does cartilage stop?

A

beyond tertiary bronchi

44
Q

what kind of epithelium is in the bronchi?

A

lined by respiratory epithelium with goblet cells and submucosal seromucus glands

45
Q

what is the anatomical dead space?

A

the upper respiratory tract, trachea, and bronchi, since it is not used for gas exchange and has an average volume of about 150 mL

46
Q

what do bronchioles lack?

A

cartilage and sero-mucus glands; smooth muscle performs support function instead; several levels

47
Q

where does gas exchange occur?

A

alveolar sacs/alveoli; about 200 micrometers in diameter

48
Q

what happens as bronchioles get smaller?

A

general trend towards thinning of epithelium with loss of goblet cells and submucosal sero-mucus glands

49
Q

what kind of epithelium is in terminal bronchioles?

A

possess tall, pseudostratified, ciliated, columnar epithelium

50
Q

what kind of epithelium is in respiratory bronchioles?

A

possess simple, cuboidal to columnar, ciliated and non-ciliated epithelium with occasional alveoli; gas exchange begins here

51
Q

what kind of epithelium is in alveolar ducts?

A

contain numerous alveoli with simple, squamous epithelium

52
Q

what do the smallest bronchioles lack?

A

goblet cells and submucosal glands

53
Q

what happens to the goblet cells in the terminal and respiratory bronchioles?

A

they are replaced by Clara cells

54
Q

what are Clara cells?

A

non-ciliated, dome-shaped, cuboidal to columnar cells; produce lipoproteins, primary components of surfactant within airways which prevents sticking together of bronchiole walls, also function a reserve stem cells capable of differentiating into other respiratory cells following damage

55
Q

what are K cells and where are they found?

A

scattered throughout the respiratory tract, part of diffuse enteroendocrine system-secrete various GI hormones, historical remnants of evolutionary origins from gut, also small numbers of brush - generalized sensory cells (columnar, with apical microvilli)

56
Q

what are MALTs? where are they found? what is its function?

A

mucosal associated lymphoid tissue; through respiratory tract, lymphoid aggregates; found in lamina propria (layer of subepithelial CT); secretion of IgA onto mucosal surface - provides protection from micro-organisms

57
Q

what is deep to the mucosa? where is this structure prominent?

A

smooth muscle layer = muscularis mucosae; smaller airways of respiratory bronchioles and alveolar ducts as alveolar rings and controls the luminal diameter of airways and resistance to airflow, regulates alveolar air movement, takes over support function of cartilage

58
Q

what kind of epithelium is in the alveolar ducts and alveoli?

A

simple squamous

59
Q

what are alveoli?

A

thin-walled structures surrounded by rich capillary network, supplied by pulmonary A; have walls between them called alveolar septa which contain alvolar pores (pores of Kohn); which are communicating spaces between alveoli

60
Q

what kind of special cell is in alveoli?

A

simple squamous epithelium consisting of type I pneumocytes: flattened epithelial cells modified for gas exchange

61
Q

what is the air-blood barrier?

A

2 cell layers that make a separation between air in alveolus and blood in the capillaries; consist of type I pneumocytes of alveoli, endothelial cells lining capillaries, and shared, fused basement membrane

62
Q

what is only about 5% of the surface area of the lung lined by?

A

type II pneumocytes: larger, rounded, dome-shaped cells and can differentiate into Type I cells. possess intracytoplasmic granules, called lamellar bodies, containing phospholipid. contents secreted as surfactant, a phospholipid, which decreases surface tension and keeps the cells moist for gas exchange

63
Q

what happens if infants lack surfactant?

A

is the primary respiratory problem for premature infants; causes respiratory distress syndrome

64
Q

what are alveolar macrophages?

A

(aka dust cells) phagocytize particulate matter and microorganisms that are eliminated from the lung at rate of about 50 million/day, via mucociliary ladder

65
Q

what is the lymphatic drainage of the respiratory system?

A

no direct lymphatic drainage of alveoli - only indirect, via interstitium of interalveolar septa; there is a second system of pleural lymphatics within visceral pleura that drains the pleural space

66
Q

what can happen with a lymphatic obstruction in the lungs?

A

a pleural effusion (fluid within the pleural space ~ lungs - horizontal fluid line) or pulmonary edema (fluid within the alveoli of the lungs - interstitial pattern); both are common with pneumonia

67
Q

pneumonia

A

bacterial and or viral infection of the lung with high inflammatory cell infiltrate (especially neutrophils and macrophages); infections associated with pneumonia may decrease production of pleural fluid leading to damage of the pleura (pleurisy); adhesions between visceral and parietal pleura are connective tissue tags

68
Q

anthracosis

A

originally seen in coal miners, from inhaling “anthracite” coal dust; now common in urban environments

69
Q

silicosis and asbestosis

A

silicosis from inhaled silica particles; primary sources are coal dust and asbestos: sharp crystals, difficult to phagocytose, leading to pulmonary fibrosis due to accumulation of silicic acid in lungs, which stimulates fibroblast proliferation and collagen production

70
Q

mesothelioma

A

asbestos inhalation has also been linked to benign and malignant mesothelioma

1) epitheliod
2) biphasic
3) sarcomatoid

71
Q

tuberculosis

A

mycobacterium tuberculinum leads to formation of multifocal nodules or tubercles

  • bacterial foci are surrounded by inflammatory cells, especially macrophages, walled off by fibrotic capsule
  • highly contagious, especially among primates
72
Q

what happens to a smoker’s lungs?

A

mucus production increases: accumulation leads to “smoker’s hack”, cilia are impaired: first lose synchronicity, then die; bronchitis: fibrosis, thickening of airways; over time normal epithelium of the URT is replaced by stratified squamous epithelium (metaplasia) and get replacement of one tissue type by another; more resistant to physical stress, can be incited by physical trauma (chronic coughing), chemical, or thermal insult (smoking), metaplasia may be first step in neoplasia (cancer) - cigarettes also contain carcinogens; smoking is primary cause of lung cancer

73
Q

emphysema

A

characterized by permanent enlargement of alveoli - bulla formation; caused by chronic obstruction of air flow which leads to destruction of alveolar septa and decreased surface area for gas exchange; initiated by chronic inhalation of particulate matter (dust, smoke), mucus accumulation leads to destruction of alveolar wall; due to release of lysosomal enzymes from neutrophils and macrophages; most common cause is smoking; bronchitis, asthma, and emphysema collectively referred to as COPD;

74
Q

asthma

A

asthma characterized by chronic airway obstruction, inflammation or irritation and increase in responsiveness leading to exaggerated bronchoconstriction; initiated by formation of Ag-Ab complexes on cell membranes, require phagocytosis; mast cells and eosinophils present in large numbers in submucosa in asthmatics; can be present with other inflammatory cells; increased respiration, irritation causes mast cells to release histamine and SRS leading to smooth muscle contraction of bronchioles and vasodilation leading to an acute asthma attack; eosinophils counteract effects of histamine with histaminase (neutralizes histamine) and eosinophil derived inhibitor (inhibits mast cell degranulation), etc.

75
Q

what is the normal stimuli to cause bronchodilation or bronchoconstriction?

A

adrenergic, sympathetic stimuli - fight or flight - bronchiolar smooth muscle relaxation and dilation of airways
cholinergic, parasympathetic stimuli - bronchiolar smooth muscle contraction, vasodilation, decrease in airway diameter

HSF (23 decks)

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