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Bioethics > History of Ethics and Bioethics > Flashcards

History of Ethics and Bioethics Flashcards

1
Q

concerned with relations between people and how they can live in peace and harmony

A

morality

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2
Q

 Aims to protect cherished values or “good”

A

morality

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3
Q

– for individual/ for community (quality life), property, liberty, or idea

A

good

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4
Q

 Makes things go better and gives more meaning to life

A

morality

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5
Q

 Also pertains to the beliefs of the individual or groups as to what is right or wrong

A

morality

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6
Q

 May differ from society to society or culture to culture

A

morality

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7
Q

 Expressed in the form of general rules and statements

A

morality

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8
Q

 Usually consistent but sometimes can change if the individual’s belief change

A

morality

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9
Q

 Transcends cultural norms

A

morality

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10
Q

systematic reflection on and analysis of morality

A

ethics

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11
Q

 A fundamental part of the life of everyone in society

A

ethics

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12
Q

 Can be applied to everyday problems among individuals, in institutions, and in society

A

ethics

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13
Q

 Guiding principles which helps the individual or group to decide what is right or wrong

A

ethics

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14
Q

 Generally uniform and abstract

A

ethics

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15
Q

 Governed by professional and legal guidelines within a particular time and place

A

ethics

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16
Q
  • Major areas/tools of ethical analysis (2)
A

metaethical considerations
normative ethical considerations

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17
Q

tries to discover reasons given for making a moral judgement about the moral life

A

metaethical considerations

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18
Q

 Geared to thinking about our reasons for defending particular position

A

metaethical considerations

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19
Q

 Requirement: awareness of own beliefs, imagination to influence right/wrong

A

metaethical considerations

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20
Q

ask more concrete questions related to morality

A

normative ethical considerations

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21
Q

 What types of acts are morally right or wrong?
 What types of values are morally good or bad?

what ethical analysis

A

normative ethical considerations

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22
Q

types of metaethical

A

absolutism
relativism

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23
Q

rest on the notion that what is right based on knowledge that can be known to be truth

A

absolutism

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24
Q

 Moral sources can be religious beliefs, natural laws, intuition

A

absolutism

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25
Q

 Asserts that there are certain universal moral principles by which all people’s action may be judged

A

absolutism

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26
Q

rest on the assumption that ethical statements are not known to be ultimately true or false

A

relativism

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27
Q

 Moral sources are usually from cultural source and societal source

A

relativism

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28
Q

 Believes that there is no universal or absolute set of moral principles

A

relativism

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29
Q

theories of normative ethics (2)

A

deontological theory
teological theory

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30
Q

Greek deonto means

A

duty

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31
Q

 Relies on duties, rights or other means of acting, MEANS theories

A

deontological theory

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32
Q

– Greek telos means

A

end

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33
Q

 Relies on ends or consequences to determine when one is acting rightly or wrongly
 Ends theories

A

teological theory

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34
Q

holds that one is acting rightly when one acts according to one’s duties and rights

A

deontological theory

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35
Q

 Therefore, duties and rights are the correct means to use in evaluating a course of action

what theory

A

deontological theory

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36
Q

 Simple to apply; just requires that people follow the rules and do their duty

A

deontological theory

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37
Q

 Avoids subjectivity and uncertainty because you only have to follow set rules

A

deontological theory

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38
Q

 Identified with the writings of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

A

deontological theory

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39
Q

he held every person has an inherent dignity and on that basis alone is entitled to respect

A

Immanuel Kant

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40
Q

 He thought that duties and rights of individuals help to distinguish how their respect can be honored

A

Immanuel Kent

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41
Q

 It follows that the right thing is always to be guided by moral duties, responsibilities

A

deontological theory

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42
Q

 He concluded that some actions are intrinsically immoral, no matter how positive and beneficial one might judge the consequences to be; and other actions are intrinsically moral, no matter how negative the consequences might be

A

Immanuel Kent

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43
Q

 In other words, one can’t judge the moral rightness or wrongness of an act on the basis of its consequence alone

A

deontological theory

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44
Q

is shown by never using people to achieve other goals or consequences

A

respect

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45
Q

concerned with consequences based on the concept of utilitarianism

A

teological theory

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46
Q

 Holds the most ethical choice is the one that will produce the greatest good for the greatest number

A

teleological theory

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47
Q

 The only moral framework that can justify the use of military forces or war

A

teleological theory

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48
Q

 Also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business

A

teleological theory

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49
Q

teleological theory is first developed by two English philosophers (2)

A

Jeremy Bentham
John Stuart Mill

50
Q

an act is right if it is useful to bring about the best consequences overall

A

utilitarianism

51
Q
  • Significance of studying bioethics
A
  1. Ethics are set of moral principles or values that govern behavior
  2. Individual makes personal decision about what they believe is right or wrong
  3. Ethical rules help individuals decide on how to behave in different situations
  4. Ethics is essential to live in a responsible and meaningful life
  5. Ethics allow individual to deepen understanding for worth holding opinions
  6. Ethics identifies ethical practices applicable to different actions and situations
  7. Ethics analyzes interactions brought about by advance in technology
  8. ethics examines conducts that can bring benefits or harm to people
  9. ethics prepares health care students to deal difficult situations in rational and principled manner
  10. applied ethics attempts to use philosophical methods to identify moral correct course of actions in various fields (biomedical, engineering, business, agriculture, environmental, military) of everyday life.
52
Q

developed one of the earliest moral philosophies from the Greek mystery religion Orphism

A

Pythagoras

53
Q

s a mystery cult associated with the mythical poet Orpheus and the various poems and songs attributed to him

A

orphism

54
Q

 believed that the intellectual nature is superior to the sensual nature and that the best life is one devoted to mental discipline

A

Pythagoras

55
Q

 founded a semi-religious order with rules emphasizing simplicity in speech, dress, and food

A

pythagoras

56
Q

group of Greek philosophers who taught rhetoric, logic, and civil affairs

A

sophist

57
Q

 skeptical of moral absolutes
 divided into several schools of thought

A

sophists

58
Q
  • taught that human judgment is subjective, and that one’s perception is valid only for oneself
A

sophist protagoras

59
Q
  • went to the extreme of arguing that nothing exists; that if anything does exist, human beings could not know it; and that if they did know it, they could not communicate that knowledge
A

sophist Gorgias

60
Q

believes that might makes right

A

sophist Thrasymachus

61
Q
  • opposed the Sophists
A

Socrates

62
Q

according to him

 “virtue is knowledge; people will be virtuous if they know what virtue is; and vice, or evil, is the result of ignorance”

A

Socrates

63
Q

 “education can make people ____

A

morales

64
Q

 in his Dialogues, he maintains that human virtue lies in the fitness of a person to perform that person’s proper function in the world

A

Socrates

65
Q

Socrates  explained that the human soul has three elements

A

intellect
will
emotion

66
Q

 the virtue of ___is wisdom, or knowledge of the ends of life; that of the will is courage, the capacity to act; and that of the emotions is temperance, or self-control

A

intellect

67
Q

 the ultimate virtue, ____, is the harmonious relation of all the others, each part of the soul doing its appropriate task and keeping its proper place

A

justice

68
Q

Socrates maintained that the intellect should be sovereign, the ___second, and the ___ subject to intellect and will

A

will
emotion

69
Q

 the just person, whose life is ordered in this way (1st intellect, 2nd will, 3rd emotion) , is therefore the ___person

A

good

70
Q

Socrates  gave rise to four schools of thought build by his immediate disciples

A

Cynics
Cyenaics
Megarians
Platonist

71
Q

notable philosopher of cynics

A

antisthenes

72
Q

notably the philosopher Antisthenes, maintained that the essence of virtue, the only good, is self-control and that it is capable of being taught;

A

Cynics

73
Q

 described pleasure as an evil, if accepted as a guide to conduct

A

Cynics

74
Q

 considered all pride a vice, including pride in appearance or cleanliness

A

Cynics

75
Q

notable philosopher of cyrenaics

A

Aristippus

76
Q
  • notably Aristippus of Cyrene, were hedonists, postulating pleasure as the chief good (as long as it does not dominate one’s life)
A

cyrenaics

77
Q

 that no one kind of pleasure is superior to another, and that it is measurable only in degree and duration

A

cyrenaics

78
Q

megarians are whose followers

A

Euclids

79
Q
  • Euclid’s followers, posited that although good may be called wisdom, God, or reason, it is “one,” and that good is the final secret of the universe, which can be revealed only through logical inquiry
A

Megarians

80
Q

believed that good is an essential element of reality; evil does not exist in itself but is, rather, an imperfect reflection of the real, which is goo

A

Platonist

81
Q

Plato’s pupil, regarded happiness as the aim of life

A

Aristotle

82
Q

Artistotle’s principal work on Ethics

A

Nicomachean Ethics

83
Q

 in his principal work on ethics, the Nicomachean Ethics, he defined happiness as activity that accords with the specific nature of humanity

A

Aristotle

84
Q

 pleasure accompanies such activity but is not its chief aim

which philosopher

A

Aristotle

85
Q

results from the unique human attribute of reason, functioning harmoniously with human faculties

A

happiness

86
Q

Aristotle  held that virtues are essentially good habits, and that to attain happiness a person must develop two kinds of habits

A

those of mental activity (knowledge)
practical action and emotion (courage)

87
Q

are habits of action that conform to the golden mean, the principle of moderation, and they must be flexible because of differences among people and conditioning factors

A

moral values

88
Q

 for example, the amount one should eat depends on one’s size, age, and occupation defines the mean as being between the two extremes of excess and insufficiency; thus, ____ is the mean between prodigality and stinginess

A

generosity

89
Q

what virtues (2) are merely means toward the attainment of happiness, which results from the full realization of human potential. according to Aristotle

A

intellectual
moral

90
Q

Greek physician, associated with more than 70 works pertaining to medicine;

A

Hippocrates

91
Q

in this, in the midst of instructions on how to diagnose various illnesses, he offers the following, As to diseases, make a habit of two things—to help and not to harm

A

Epidemics I

92
Q

 Hippocrates’ most famous ethical work—although the exact origin of the text is unknown—is the

A

Hippocratic oath

93
Q

what part of Hippocratic oath swears doctors to keep patients from harm and injustice

A

eight paragraph

94
Q

requires physicians to give their loyalty and support to their fellow physicians, promise to apply dietetic measures for the benefit of the sick, refuse to provide abortion or euthanasia, and swear not to make improper sexual advances against any members of the household

A

hippocratic oath

95
Q

 the oath still symbolizes a physician’s duties and obligations

A

hippocratic oath

96
Q

the idea of ethical conduct is common in many early texts, including those from Ancient India and China

A

Asia

97
Q

 believed that medical knowledge was divine or magical in origin

A

Asia

98
Q

 counterpart of the Hippocratic Oath in Asia

A

Caraka Samhita

99
Q

, a Sanskrit text written in India roughly 2,000 years ago, urges the following commandment to physicians

A

Caraka Samhita

100
Q

 Day and night, however you may be engaged, you shall strive for the relief of the patient with all your heart and soul. You shall not desert the patient even for the sake of your life or living

A

Caraka Samhita

101
Q

 similar sentiments can be found in the Chinese text

A

Nei Jing

102
Q

 three centuries later, the work of the Chinese physician ____ ___emphasized compassion and humility, “a great physician should not pay attention to status, wealth, or age…. he  should meet everyone on equal ground….”

A

Sun Simiao

103
Q

the ethical standards of physicians were put to the test by the bubonic plague, the highly contagious Black Death that arrived around the mid-1300s and remained a threat for centuries

what place

A

Europe

104
Q

 when plague broke out, physicians had a choice

A

They could stay and treat the sick—risking death in the process—or flee

105
Q

 the ___ plague and other epidemics provide an early example of the challenges that still exist today when doctors must decide whether they are willing to face personal risks when caring for their patients

A

bubonic

106
Q

the emphasis in medical ethics centered on proper, honorable behavior

what time

A

18th century (Britain)

107
Q

 one of the best-known works from the 18th period is

A

Medical Ethics/ Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons

108
Q

Medical Ethics; or, a Code of Institutes and Precepts, Adapted to the Professional Conduct of Physicians and Surgeons, published in 1803 by the British physician

A

Thomas Percival

109
Q

 in his 72 precepts, ___ urged a level of care and attention such that doctors would “inspire the minds of their patients with gratitude, respect, and confidence”

A

Thomas Percival

110
Q

 his ethics, however, also permitted withholding the truth from a patient if the truth might be “deeply injurious to himself, to his family, and to the public”

A

Thomas Percival

111
Q

 at roughly the same time American physician ___ ____, a signer of the Declaration of Independence, was promoting American medical ethics

A

Benjamin Rush

112
Q

 he spoke of the virtues of generosity, honesty, piety, and service to the poor

A

Benjamin Rush

113
Q

it seemed that such virtues were in short supply, and the public generally held physicians in North America in low esteem

what time

A

19th century

114
Q

 complicating the problem was the existence of a variety of faith healers and other unconventional practitioners who flourished in an almost entirely unregulated medical marketplace

A

19th century

115
Q

 in part to remedy this situation, physicians convened in 1847 to form a national association devoted to the improvement of standards in medical ___and ___

A

education
practice

116
Q

as the group called itself, issued its own code of ethics, stating, “A physician shall be dedicated to providing competent medical service with compassion and respect for human dignity. A physician shall recognize a responsibility to participate in activities contributing to an improved community.”

A

American Medical Association

117
Q

established in 1867, also developed a Code of Ethics as a guide for physicians. Today the CMA code provides over 40 guidelines about physician responsibilities to patients, society, and the medical profession

A

Canadian Medical Association

118
Q
  • the field of medical ethics has struggled to keep pace with the many complex issues raised by new technologies for creating and sustaining life

what time

A

recent years

119
Q

 artificial-respiration devices, kidney dialysis, and other machines can keep patients alive who previously would have succumbed to their illnesses or injuries

 advances in organ transplantation have brought new hope to those afflicted with diseased organs

 new techniques have enabled prospective parents to conquer infertility

A

recent years

120
Q

rogress in molecular biology and genetics has placed scientists in control of the most basic biochemical processes of life

 with the advent of these new technologies, codes of medical ethics have become inadequate  or obsolete as new questions and issues continue to confront medical ethicists

A

recent years

121
Q
A

Bioethics (8 decks)

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